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10:18, 2 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 46. Diabetic hyperosmolar syndrome (HHS) and coma (Created page with "Hyperosmolar syndrome, also called HHS, primarily affects elderly people with type 2 diabetes and not type 1. It can be thought of as the 2DM variant of DKA. Like DKA it’s a potentially life-threatening complication with approx. 15% death rate. Symptoms are mostly similar to those of DKA: * Vomiting * Polyuria * Polydipsia * Dehydration * Altered mental state, potentially coma There is no ketoacidosis (and therefore no hyperventilation) and no abdominal pain. It has...") Tag: Visual edit
10:59, 1 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 45. Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and ketoacidotic coma (Created page with "Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a complication which primarily affects people with type 1 diabetes and not type 2. It’s a potentially life-threatening complication that involves: * Vomiting * Polyuria * Polydipsia * Dehydration * Altered mental state, potentially coma. * Abdominal pain * Hyperventilation (Kussmaul breathing) * Metabolic ketoacidosis It has a rapid onset (within hours). == Etiology == DKA is caused by absolute or relative insulin deficiency. It usuall...") Tag: Visual edit
10:56, 1 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 44. Etiology and pathogenesis of 2DM (Created page with "== Etiology == Genetic factors: The concordance between identical twins is around 80%, indicating a much stronger genetic factor than for 1DM. The specific genetic factors involved are not as well known as for 1DM, but it’s certain that HLA plays no role. Possible genes that are mutated in 2DM include: * GLUT2 * PPAR-γ * GLUT4 * GCGR – the glucagon receptor gene * TCF7L2 – a transcription factor that is active in β-cells – the most significant gene associated...") Tag: Visual edit
10:55, 1 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 43. Etiology and pathogenesis of 1DM (Created page with "== Etiology == The basic mechanism behind 1DM is a destruction of pancreatic β-cells. The other endocrine functions of the pancreas are usually maintained. The exact cause of the destruction isn’t completely understood. There are both genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factors: Concordance between identical twins is only 40% and between parent and child only 5%. This indicates that genetic factors play only a minor role. Certain types of HLA, especially HLA-D...") Tag: Visual edit
10:54, 1 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 42. General pathobiochemistry of diabetes mellitus syndrome (Created page with "This topic describes the biochemical changes in diabetes. The deficiency of insulin explains most of these changes. Many glucose transporter proteins (GLUT) exist, but GLUT4 is the only one that is insulin dependent. It is found in myocardium, skeletal muscle and adipose tissue. When insulin binds to the insulin receptor on these cells will intracellular vesicles that contain GLUT4 be transported to the membrane, so that the glucose transporter is embedded into the memb...") Tag: Visual edit
10:50, 1 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:OGTT plasma glucose.png
10:50, 1 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:OGTT plasma glucose.png
10:49, 1 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 41. Basic characteristics and forms of diabetes mellitus syndrome (Created page with "''I don’t know why the department calls it «diabetes mellitus syndrome». Nobody else does that. A syndrome is a constellation of symptoms that don’t have an identifiable cause, a definition diabetes definitely doesn’t fit. Diabetes mellitus is a group of diseases, not a syndrome.'' Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a group of metabolic diseases that are characterised by chronic hyperglycaemia due to absolute or relative insulin deficiency. The decreased insulin effect c...") Tag: Visual edit
10:48, 1 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 40. Hyperglycemia and glucose-tolerance tests. Diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. (Created page with "== Hyperglycaemia == Defining hyperglycaemia isn’t straightforward, as the plasma glucose value varies depending on stress, recent food intake, circadian cycle and other factors. The diagnosis of hyperglycaemia is necessary for the diagnosis of any type of diabetes mellitus. ''Alimentary hyperglycaemia'' is the hyperglycaemia that occurs after consuming a meal. The degree of which a food causes plasma glucose level to rise depends on that foods ''glycaemic index''. Fo...") Tag: Visual edit
10:46, 1 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 39. Fever and sickness-behavior. The biological value of fever (Created page with "High temperature slows or stops the proliferation of some bacteria, but the main biological value of fever lies in how the immune system is enhanced during it. Virtually all aspects of the immune system work better in an elevated core temperature; T-cell proliferation, immunoglobulin synthesis and phagocytosis and more are more efficient. The biological value of fever is disputed; there are down-sides to a fever as well. Despite this the evidence points to that a modera...") Tag: Visual edit
10:45, 1 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 38. Pathogenesis of fever (Created page with "A fever is an active core temperature elevation that occurs because the hypothalamus increases the set point temperature value. It doesn’t occur due to deficiency of warm-defence. The temperature is generally considered subfebrile between 37.5°C and 38.0°C, febrile between 38.0°C and 41.5°C, and hyperpyrexia above 41.5°C (40°C according to the book). Hyperpyrexia is a medical emergency as it usually indicates a serious underlying condition such as brain damage....") Tag: Visual edit
10:42, 1 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 37. Heat stroke and malignant hyperthermia (Created page with "== Heat stroke == Heat stroke is a medical emergency where a person has hyperthermia (40-41°C), anhidrosis and mental status alteration, possible even coma. It may be deadly; the outcome is influenced by the severity of the state and by the duration of the hyperthermia. Anhidrosis develops due to CNS damage because of hyperthermia. The lack of sweating allows the body temperature to continue to rise. == Malignant hyperthermia == Malignant hyperthermia is a life-threate...") Tag: Visual edit
10:42, 1 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 36. Warm-defense and heat-induced disorders (Created page with "The body’s defence against heat includes: * Skin vasodilation – increases heat loss by allowing heat to conduct away from the skin, increasing ''conduction'' * Sweating – as the sweat evaporates heat is lost by ''evaporative cooling'' * Arrector pili muscles relax – the flat hairs on the skin increase air flow around skin, increasing ''convection'' To lose as much heat as possible, cardiac output increases (probably due to sympathetic activation), which, in com...") Tag: Visual edit
10:39, 1 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 35. Cold-defense and cold-induced disorders (Created page with "The human “core” body temperature is relatively stable. It lies around 36.5 – 37.5°C, but it fluctuates with the circadian rhythm, changes in the ovulatory cycle, during exercise and after food intake. The outer surface temperature varies mainly according to the conditions of the environment. Regulations of the body temperature relies on information coming from warm-sensitive and cold-sensitive thermoreceptors at different points in the body. The hypothalamus is...") Tag: Visual edit
10:37, 1 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 34. Metabolic syndrome (Created page with "Metabolic syndrome is a serious health condition where a person has three or more of the following measurements: * Abdominal obesity (increased waist circumference) * Hypertriglyceridaemia * Low HDL * Hypertension – above 130/85 mmHg * Insulin resistance – fasting glucose > 100 mg/dL A person with metabolic syndrome has drastically increased risk for several health problems, like cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. About 23 %...") Tag: Visual edit
10:35, 1 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 33. Consequences of obesity. Therapeutic possibilities (Created page with "== Consequences of obesity == Obesity is associated with a clear and substantial increase in both morbidity and mortality. A recent study<ref>https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamacardiology/article-abstract/2673289</ref> found that men within a healthy weight range lived about six years longer than men who were morbidly obese. This may not sound like much; however this does not show how the quality of life is decreased during the last living years of obese people. Obesit...") Tag: Visual edit
10:28, 1 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 32. Etiology and pathogenesis of obesity (Created page with "The direct cause of obesity is a too large energy intake coupled with a too small energy expenditure. However, the ''real, underlying'' cause must be endogenous as there is some endogenous need for the person to consume more food than they need, or to store (rather than use) more nutrients than needed, or to use less energy than normal. Studies on identical twins have shown that in twin pairs where one twin is obese is there a higher risk for the other twin to also deve...") Tag: Visual edit
10:27, 1 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 31. Obesity. Criteria, classification and epidemiology (Created page with "Overweight and obesity are defined by the WHO<ref>https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight</ref> as “abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that may impair health”. An adult person is overweight when their BMI is between 25 and 30, and obese if their BMI is 30 or above. BMI above 40 is considered morbidly obese. The definition for children is different as it must take age into consideration. Obesity is a huge health problem. In 2016...") Tag: Visual edit
20:35, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 30. Central and peripheral factors in the regulation of food intake and body weight. Disorders (Created page with "Food intake is regulated through the sensations of hunger, appetite and satiety. Appetite relates to hunger, but they are not the same. Hunger is the physical need for food that is related to your body’s need for nutrients. It cannot be controlled as it is instinctive. Ignoring hunger leads to low blood glucose. Satiety is opposite of hunger. Appetite is the desire to eat. It is what you feel when you really ''want'' some chocolate or fries. Appetite can (and in most...") Tag: Visual edit
20:33, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 29. Protein deficiency. Protein-calorie malnutrition. Senile sarcopenia (Created page with "Proteins are indispensable to the body as they play many roles. In their deficiency are many functions disordered. Proteins in food can be either complete (or whole) which contain all the nine essential amino acids, or incomplete, which don’t contain these essential amino acids. Theoretically, if you just consumed incomplete protein sources would you be protein deficient. Some sources of complete proteins are meat, fish, eggs, milk, cheese, soy and quinoa. The total...") Tag: Visual edit
20:31, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 28. Partial starvation, accelerated forms of energetic insufficiency – anorexia nervosa. Refeeding (Created page with "In partial starvation is the process of starvation repeatedly interrupted by small food intake, however this isn’t sufficient to provide the normal number of calories. In the long run is the intake of calories too low, however it may still be enough for stabilization of body weight, as the metabolic rate can continue at a lower level to allow survival. Unlike in complete starvation will vitamin and mineral deficiencies have time to develop during partial starvation. P...") Tag: Visual edit
20:30, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 27. Complete starvation. Occurrence and process. (Created page with "Starvation refers to generalized deficiency of energy-containing nutrients like fat, protein and carbohydrates. There is no deficiency of minerals, water or vitamins, or the deficiency of these is not as urgent as the deficiency of calories, meaning that their deficiency does not have time to affect the person. There are two forms of starvation: Complete starvation, where absolutely no calorie-containing foods are consumed, and partial starvation, where the amount of ca...") Tag: Visual edit
20:29, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 26. Fat-soluble vitamins (Created page with "''I include the updated values for RDA as presented by the Institute of Medicine, the government of USA. The values taught by the university are marked in italic.'' == Vitamin A == Name: Vitamin A, retinol or axerophthol ''The name axerophthol comes from the Greek words for not (“a”), dry (“xero”) and eye (“opthal”), meaning that this is the vitamin that prevents dry eyes. This name is not widely used anymore though.'' Function in the body: Vitamin A is a...") Tag: Visual edit
20:27, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 25. Water-soluble vitamins (Created page with "B vitamins in general are found in highest abundance in meat and vegetables. Chronic alcoholics usually don’t consume much of either of these. Alcoholics also usually have liver problems, which may interfere with the storage of these vitamins (if they have stores) and their conversion to the active form. Because of these facts is ''complex vitamin B hypovitaminosis'' frequent in chronic alcoholics. ''You may find that my notes disagree with the curriculum at some poin...") Tag: Visual edit
20:23, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 24. Hypo- and hypervitaminosis, micronutrients (Created page with "The word ''vitamin'' comes from the Latin word for “life” + the word “amine”. Not all vitamins are amine, however. The definition of a vitamin is “a small organic molecule that the body cannot produce but requires for survival and health maintenance”. Another essential component is that for a molecule to be a vitamin should there be described a ''deficiency syndrome'' state for the molecule. This means that there should be some health consequences if a person...") Tag: Visual edit
20:22, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 23. Physical activity, inactivity, immobilization syndrome. Factors from lifestyle and age (Created page with "== Physical activity == Let’s praise physical activity for a second: * It increases energy expenditure, contributing to maintaining healthy body mass * It improves the muscle/fat ratio of the body, indirectly increasing BMR * It decreases plasma levels of cholesterol and LDL while increasing HDL levels * It decreases the incidence of insulin insensitivity and diabetes * It improves the body’s ability for thermal adaptation – trained persons can adapt better to war...") Tag: Visual edit
20:21, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 22. Energy balance. Influencing factors, pathological changes. (Created page with "== Metabolic rate == Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the amount of energy per unit time that a person needs to keep the body functioning. It can be measured when several conditions are met: * Subject must be in a thermoneutral environment * Measured 12 hours after last meals * No drugs or coffee * Measured in an awake, lying down and resting position * The subject should be without physical and psychological stress BMR can be measured by measuring the amount of CO2 produ...") Tag: Visual edit
20:19, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 21. Gastroenterological changes in the elderly (Created page with "== Vascular changes in elderly == Elderly usually have decreased splanchnic perfusion, both due to atherosclerosis of vessels and due to low reserve capacity of the heart. If the splanchnic perfusion is too low can the person develop a type of pain called ''abdominal angina'' after food intake, due to the hypoperfusion of the intestines. Persons with decreased systemic perfusion, also due to the factors listed above, can develop ischaemia of other organs after food inta...") Tag: Visual edit
20:18, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 20. Pathophysiology of alcohol effects (Created page with "Alcohol (ethanol) is the second most used psychoactive stimulant in the world after caffeine. The consumption is high and rising. This makes it important to know the harmful effects of alcohol on the body. As alcoholism can be regarded as a disease, we can look at the etiology. There are both environmental and genetic factors involve that predispose a person to alcoholism. Social studies have determined that there are two different types of alcoholics. {| class="wikitab...") Tag: Visual edit
20:16, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 19. Hepatic coma (Created page with "== Portal encephalopathy == ''Portal encephalopathy'' is a related to hepatic encephalopathy. It can be present without liver failure in cases of where portal hypertension occurs without liver failure. It also aggravates and contributes to the hepatic encephalopathy when liver failure with portal hypertension is present. Portal encephalopathy occurs because nutrient-rich blood from the intestines bypass the liver by entering the systemic circulation through porto-caval...") Tag: Visual edit
20:15, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 18. Ascites and hepatorenal syndrome (Created page with "== Ascites == Ascites is the condition when there is pathologic fluid collection inside the abdominal cavity. It usually presents with increased abdominal girth (circumference), causing the abdominal cavity to be elevated above the thoracic cavity when lying down. The amount of fluid can exceed 10 litres. The fluid can be either transudative or exudative, depending on its albumin content. It’s commonly associated with cirrhosis but can occur without liver damage as we...") Tag: Visual edit
20:14, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 17. Portal hypertension (Created page with "The portal vein drains most of the <abbr>GI</abbr> tract, from the lower parts of the oesophagus to the middle part of the rectum. The portal vein drains into the liver, where nutrient-rich blood is filtered through the hepatic sinusoids before draining into the inferior vena cava. There are multiple points in the body where veins that drain into the portal system and veins that drain into the vena caval system anastomose. They are called porto-caval anastomoses, and ca...") Tag: Visual edit
20:13, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 16. Cirrhosis. Causes, mechanisms and consequences. Hepatic cachexia. (Created page with "Cirrhosis is the disease where functioning liver parenchyme is replaced by connective scar tissue. It’s the final pathway of many chronic liver diseases, like alcohol-induced or viral hepatitis. The normal liver architecture is converted into structurally abnormal nodules. Its development takes years. It involves a chronic injury to hepatocytes that stimulates scarring. As the functioning liver parenchyme is replaced by scar tissue will the liver start to lose its func...") Tag: Visual edit
20:11, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 15. Jaundice (Created page with "== Bilirubin == Bilirubin is the breakdown product of the heme part of haemoglobin. It is the culprit of the yellowness of urine and of the brownness of feces. Bilirubin is toxic, so the liver keeps its level low by eliminating it. The normal serum level is <17 µmol/L. As red blood cells are at the end of their lifespan of around 120 days they are phagocytosed by macrophages in the spleen. This breaks down haemoglobin in to heme and globin. Globin is broken down into a...") Tag: Visual edit
10:47, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 14. Disorders of intermediary metabolism in general liver cell damage (Created page with "The term “intermediate metabolism” refers to intracellular metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. The liver plays an important role in these processes. The pancreatic beta-cells detects the increase in blood sugar levels after consuming a meal and starts to release insulin as a response. This promotes entry of glucose to insulin dependent muscle, fat and glycogen production in the liver, causing the excess glucose to disappear from the circulation. A mod...") Tag: Visual edit
10:46, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 13. Pathophysiology of chronic pancreatitis (Created page with "Chronic pancreatitis is the slow, progressive and irreversible destruction of the pancreas. People suffering from it occasionally have exacerbations. It rarely evolves from an acute pancreatitis. == Etiology == The common causes include: * Chronic alcoholism – more viscous juice, less antitrypsin, increased sphincter tone * Idiopathic, especially in elderly * Cystic fibrosis – mucoviscidosis. more viscous juice * Chronic protein deficiency * Chronic hypercalcaemia...") Tag: Visual edit
10:45, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 12. Acute pancreatitis. Pathophysiology and consequences (Created page with "The exocrine pancreas produces digestive enzymes. They are secreted in proenzyme form inside zymogen granules, so they’re not active before they reach the duodenal lumen. Once they reach the lumen will they be activated by brush border-bound ''enteropeptidase'' (also called enterokinase). The most important pancreatic digestive enzymes are trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, collagenase, lipase, phospholipase and amylase. If the zymogens were activated before they arriv...") Tag: Visual edit
10:26, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 11. Obstipation, subileus, diverticulosis. GIT motility disorders (Created page with "== Obstipation and constipation == Constipation is the condition where you’re not passing stools regularly. The faeces are usually hard and difficult to pass. Obstipation is a more severe form where hard feces block the intestines so that not even gas is passed. ''Many consider constipation and obstipation to be the same thing.'' Common causes include: * Idiopathic forms * Autonomic neuropathy * Hypokalaemia Common symptoms include malaise and bloating. The mechanis...") Tag: Visual edit
10:25, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 10. Bowel obstruction (ileus) (Created page with "Ileus is defined as a complete cessation of bowel passage. There is no passing of stool or gas. The partial form of ileus is called subileus. Miserere, the vomiting of faecal matter, may occur. X-ray shows distended segments of the gut filled with fluid and gas. A splashing sound can be heard after pushing on the side of the abdomen. The pathophysiology is complex and not fully understood. The lack of passage itself isn’t dangerous in itself, however it does induce s...") Tag: Visual edit
10:24, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 9. Diarrhoea. Causes, pathophysiological forms, consequences (Created page with "The water content of the stool shouldn’t exceed 200 mL/day – anything above this is regarded as diarrhoea. While the frequency of defecation is commonly increased during diarrhoea is it not decisive for the definition. The result of the increased water content is that the quantity and consistence of the feces is altered and peristaltic movements are enhanced. The intestines secrete watery secretion that dissolve and dilute nutrients. They can also reabsorb secretio...") Tag: Visual edit
09:56, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 8. Complex malabsorption syndromes (Created page with "In complex malabsorption syndromes isn’t just the absorption of one nutrient impaired but rather multiple. It occurs in: * Chronic pancreatitis * Coeliac syndrome * Cystic fibrosis * Short bowel syndrome * Bacterial overgrowth * Enterocolitis == Pancreatic malabsorption == Prolonged hyposecretion of pancreatic juice is most commonly seen in chronic pancreatitis but also in lasting starvation, cachexia, protein deficiency and sclerosis of the pancreatic artery. In sev...") Tag: Visual edit
09:43, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 7. Specific malabsorption syndromes (level or substrate of disorder) (Created page with "After the food has been digested into small particles by luminal digestion (pancreatic) and surface digestion (brush border enzymes) can the particles be absorbed. Particles get into the luminal surface of the villi through the brush border by diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport or endocytosis. Absorption mainly takes place at the tip of the villi while secretion occurs at their base. Recall from earlier that the countercurrent circulation of the villi me...") Tag: Visual edit
09:42, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 6. Utilization of nutrients and its disorders. Maldigestions. Age-dependent features of nutrient utilization (Created page with "The most important disorders of digestions are lactose intolerance and chronic pancreatitis. In lactose intolerance the enzyme ''lactase'' is deficient. Lactose will instead be broken down by intestinal bacteria, causing diarrhoea and gas. Pancreas produces most of the enzymes responsible for digestion, so chronic pancreatitis leads to maldigestion. == Pancreatic secretion == Digestion doesn’t depend too much on the gastric juice and oral amylase, but it definitely d...") Tag: Visual edit
09:41, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 5. Peptic ulcer. Stress-ulcer in the elderly (Created page with "The gastric mucosa produces 1.5 – 2 litres of gastric juice every day. HCl and intrinsic factor are produced by the parietal cells, pepsinogen from the chief cells. The gastric juice also contains K+, Na+, Cl– and mucus. The pepsin in the gastric juice helps digest the food, but it is not strictly necessary for the digestion as pancreatic trypsin can take over the role of pepsin. This means that low or absent gastric juice doesn’t directly impair digestion. The ga...") Tag: Visual edit
09:40, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 4. Pathophysiology of GIT-peptides (Created page with "Gastrointestinal hormones or peptides regulate the secretion of digestive juices and the function of the Langerhans islets. They have some common features: * They are all peptides * They are produced in cells of the wall of hollow organs * They participate in the “gut-brain axis” * Several of them may derive from the same gene * They may act via endocrine, paracrine, autocrine or neurocrine transmission Gastrin is produced by G-cells in the gastric antrum and stimu...") Tag: Visual edit
09:39, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 3. Vomiting (acute, chronic) (Created page with "Vomiting is the most frequent disorder of gastric emptying. It’s a defence mechanism used to get rid of potentially dangerous substances. It’s commonly preceded by nausea. Parasympathetic tone always increases during vomiting. Vomiting involves closing the pylorus, retroperistaltic movements in the intestines, high abdominal pressure, and opening of the cardia and lower oesophageal sphincter. The increased abdominal pressure comes from the contracting abdominal musc...") Tag: Visual edit
09:38, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 2. Disorders of gastric filling and emptying (Created page with "== Pyloric stenosis == Pyloric stenosis is a condition that is mostly seen in paediatrics. It occurs secondarily to hypertrophy and hyperplasia of the muscular layers of the pylorus, the most distal part of the stomach. This impairs emptying of the stomach contents into the duodenum. In advanced cases can the stomach become dilated due to the obstruction. Symptoms include colicky pain and projectile vomiting, which may cause exsiccosis in severe cases. The vomit will no...") Tag: Visual edit
09:37, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 1. Disorders of chewing, swallowing and esophagus functions – the gastro-esophageal reflux disease. (Created page with "== Salivation and chewing == Food is processed in the oral cavity by breaking it into smaller pieces by chewing and by mixing it with saliva and digestive enzymes. This forms a ''bolus'' which then gets into the stomach by swallowing. Proper oral preparation of food is essential also for digestion and absorption of food in the intestines. We produce around 1.5L of saliva every day. Carbohydrate digestion begins already in the oral cavity with the amylase enzyme that is...") Tag: Visual edit
09:36, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page Category:Pathophysiology 2 (Created page with "Category:3rd year") Tag: Visual edit
14:09, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 87. Definitions and causes of sepsis and trauma (Created page with "== Systemic inflammatory response syndrome == Systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) is a condition where there is widespread unregulated inflammation in the body. The term has fallen out of favour and is not used anymore. === Definition === SIRS is defined as having two or more of the following parameters: * Body temperature < 36℃ or >38℃ * Heart rate > 90 bpm * Respiratory rate > 20/min * White blood cell count < 4000/µL or > 12000/µL === Etiology ===...") Tag: Visual edit