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20:23, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 24. Hypo- and hypervitaminosis, micronutrients (Created page with "The word ''vitamin'' comes from the Latin word for “life” + the word “amine”. Not all vitamins are amine, however. The definition of a vitamin is “a small organic molecule that the body cannot produce but requires for survival and health maintenance”. Another essential component is that for a molecule to be a vitamin should there be described a ''deficiency syndrome'' state for the molecule. This means that there should be some health consequences if a person...") Tag: Visual edit
20:22, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 23. Physical activity, inactivity, immobilization syndrome. Factors from lifestyle and age (Created page with "== Physical activity == Let’s praise physical activity for a second: * It increases energy expenditure, contributing to maintaining healthy body mass * It improves the muscle/fat ratio of the body, indirectly increasing BMR * It decreases plasma levels of cholesterol and LDL while increasing HDL levels * It decreases the incidence of insulin insensitivity and diabetes * It improves the body’s ability for thermal adaptation – trained persons can adapt better to war...") Tag: Visual edit
20:21, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 22. Energy balance. Influencing factors, pathological changes. (Created page with "== Metabolic rate == Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the amount of energy per unit time that a person needs to keep the body functioning. It can be measured when several conditions are met: * Subject must be in a thermoneutral environment * Measured 12 hours after last meals * No drugs or coffee * Measured in an awake, lying down and resting position * The subject should be without physical and psychological stress BMR can be measured by measuring the amount of CO2 produ...") Tag: Visual edit
20:19, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 21. Gastroenterological changes in the elderly (Created page with "== Vascular changes in elderly == Elderly usually have decreased splanchnic perfusion, both due to atherosclerosis of vessels and due to low reserve capacity of the heart. If the splanchnic perfusion is too low can the person develop a type of pain called ''abdominal angina'' after food intake, due to the hypoperfusion of the intestines. Persons with decreased systemic perfusion, also due to the factors listed above, can develop ischaemia of other organs after food inta...") Tag: Visual edit
20:18, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 20. Pathophysiology of alcohol effects (Created page with "Alcohol (ethanol) is the second most used psychoactive stimulant in the world after caffeine. The consumption is high and rising. This makes it important to know the harmful effects of alcohol on the body. As alcoholism can be regarded as a disease, we can look at the etiology. There are both environmental and genetic factors involve that predispose a person to alcoholism. Social studies have determined that there are two different types of alcoholics. {| class="wikitab...") Tag: Visual edit
20:16, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 19. Hepatic coma (Created page with "== Portal encephalopathy == ''Portal encephalopathy'' is a related to hepatic encephalopathy. It can be present without liver failure in cases of where portal hypertension occurs without liver failure. It also aggravates and contributes to the hepatic encephalopathy when liver failure with portal hypertension is present. Portal encephalopathy occurs because nutrient-rich blood from the intestines bypass the liver by entering the systemic circulation through porto-caval...") Tag: Visual edit
20:15, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 18. Ascites and hepatorenal syndrome (Created page with "== Ascites == Ascites is the condition when there is pathologic fluid collection inside the abdominal cavity. It usually presents with increased abdominal girth (circumference), causing the abdominal cavity to be elevated above the thoracic cavity when lying down. The amount of fluid can exceed 10 litres. The fluid can be either transudative or exudative, depending on its albumin content. It’s commonly associated with cirrhosis but can occur without liver damage as we...") Tag: Visual edit
20:14, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 17. Portal hypertension (Created page with "The portal vein drains most of the <abbr>GI</abbr> tract, from the lower parts of the oesophagus to the middle part of the rectum. The portal vein drains into the liver, where nutrient-rich blood is filtered through the hepatic sinusoids before draining into the inferior vena cava. There are multiple points in the body where veins that drain into the portal system and veins that drain into the vena caval system anastomose. They are called porto-caval anastomoses, and ca...") Tag: Visual edit
20:13, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 16. Cirrhosis. Causes, mechanisms and consequences. Hepatic cachexia. (Created page with "Cirrhosis is the disease where functioning liver parenchyme is replaced by connective scar tissue. It’s the final pathway of many chronic liver diseases, like alcohol-induced or viral hepatitis. The normal liver architecture is converted into structurally abnormal nodules. Its development takes years. It involves a chronic injury to hepatocytes that stimulates scarring. As the functioning liver parenchyme is replaced by scar tissue will the liver start to lose its func...") Tag: Visual edit
20:11, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 15. Jaundice (Created page with "== Bilirubin == Bilirubin is the breakdown product of the heme part of haemoglobin. It is the culprit of the yellowness of urine and of the brownness of feces. Bilirubin is toxic, so the liver keeps its level low by eliminating it. The normal serum level is <17 µmol/L. As red blood cells are at the end of their lifespan of around 120 days they are phagocytosed by macrophages in the spleen. This breaks down haemoglobin in to heme and globin. Globin is broken down into a...") Tag: Visual edit
10:47, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 14. Disorders of intermediary metabolism in general liver cell damage (Created page with "The term “intermediate metabolism” refers to intracellular metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. The liver plays an important role in these processes. The pancreatic beta-cells detects the increase in blood sugar levels after consuming a meal and starts to release insulin as a response. This promotes entry of glucose to insulin dependent muscle, fat and glycogen production in the liver, causing the excess glucose to disappear from the circulation. A mod...") Tag: Visual edit
10:46, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 13. Pathophysiology of chronic pancreatitis (Created page with "Chronic pancreatitis is the slow, progressive and irreversible destruction of the pancreas. People suffering from it occasionally have exacerbations. It rarely evolves from an acute pancreatitis. == Etiology == The common causes include: * Chronic alcoholism – more viscous juice, less antitrypsin, increased sphincter tone * Idiopathic, especially in elderly * Cystic fibrosis – mucoviscidosis. more viscous juice * Chronic protein deficiency * Chronic hypercalcaemia...") Tag: Visual edit
10:45, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 12. Acute pancreatitis. Pathophysiology and consequences (Created page with "The exocrine pancreas produces digestive enzymes. They are secreted in proenzyme form inside zymogen granules, so they’re not active before they reach the duodenal lumen. Once they reach the lumen will they be activated by brush border-bound ''enteropeptidase'' (also called enterokinase). The most important pancreatic digestive enzymes are trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, collagenase, lipase, phospholipase and amylase. If the zymogens were activated before they arriv...") Tag: Visual edit
10:26, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 11. Obstipation, subileus, diverticulosis. GIT motility disorders (Created page with "== Obstipation and constipation == Constipation is the condition where you’re not passing stools regularly. The faeces are usually hard and difficult to pass. Obstipation is a more severe form where hard feces block the intestines so that not even gas is passed. ''Many consider constipation and obstipation to be the same thing.'' Common causes include: * Idiopathic forms * Autonomic neuropathy * Hypokalaemia Common symptoms include malaise and bloating. The mechanis...") Tag: Visual edit
10:25, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 10. Bowel obstruction (ileus) (Created page with "Ileus is defined as a complete cessation of bowel passage. There is no passing of stool or gas. The partial form of ileus is called subileus. Miserere, the vomiting of faecal matter, may occur. X-ray shows distended segments of the gut filled with fluid and gas. A splashing sound can be heard after pushing on the side of the abdomen. The pathophysiology is complex and not fully understood. The lack of passage itself isn’t dangerous in itself, however it does induce s...") Tag: Visual edit
10:24, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 9. Diarrhoea. Causes, pathophysiological forms, consequences (Created page with "The water content of the stool shouldn’t exceed 200 mL/day – anything above this is regarded as diarrhoea. While the frequency of defecation is commonly increased during diarrhoea is it not decisive for the definition. The result of the increased water content is that the quantity and consistence of the feces is altered and peristaltic movements are enhanced. The intestines secrete watery secretion that dissolve and dilute nutrients. They can also reabsorb secretio...") Tag: Visual edit
09:56, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 8. Complex malabsorption syndromes (Created page with "In complex malabsorption syndromes isn’t just the absorption of one nutrient impaired but rather multiple. It occurs in: * Chronic pancreatitis * Coeliac syndrome * Cystic fibrosis * Short bowel syndrome * Bacterial overgrowth * Enterocolitis == Pancreatic malabsorption == Prolonged hyposecretion of pancreatic juice is most commonly seen in chronic pancreatitis but also in lasting starvation, cachexia, protein deficiency and sclerosis of the pancreatic artery. In sev...") Tag: Visual edit
09:43, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 7. Specific malabsorption syndromes (level or substrate of disorder) (Created page with "After the food has been digested into small particles by luminal digestion (pancreatic) and surface digestion (brush border enzymes) can the particles be absorbed. Particles get into the luminal surface of the villi through the brush border by diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport or endocytosis. Absorption mainly takes place at the tip of the villi while secretion occurs at their base. Recall from earlier that the countercurrent circulation of the villi me...") Tag: Visual edit
09:42, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 6. Utilization of nutrients and its disorders. Maldigestions. Age-dependent features of nutrient utilization (Created page with "The most important disorders of digestions are lactose intolerance and chronic pancreatitis. In lactose intolerance the enzyme ''lactase'' is deficient. Lactose will instead be broken down by intestinal bacteria, causing diarrhoea and gas. Pancreas produces most of the enzymes responsible for digestion, so chronic pancreatitis leads to maldigestion. == Pancreatic secretion == Digestion doesn’t depend too much on the gastric juice and oral amylase, but it definitely d...") Tag: Visual edit
09:41, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 5. Peptic ulcer. Stress-ulcer in the elderly (Created page with "The gastric mucosa produces 1.5 – 2 litres of gastric juice every day. HCl and intrinsic factor are produced by the parietal cells, pepsinogen from the chief cells. The gastric juice also contains K+, Na+, Cl– and mucus. The pepsin in the gastric juice helps digest the food, but it is not strictly necessary for the digestion as pancreatic trypsin can take over the role of pepsin. This means that low or absent gastric juice doesn’t directly impair digestion. The ga...") Tag: Visual edit
09:40, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 4. Pathophysiology of GIT-peptides (Created page with "Gastrointestinal hormones or peptides regulate the secretion of digestive juices and the function of the Langerhans islets. They have some common features: * They are all peptides * They are produced in cells of the wall of hollow organs * They participate in the “gut-brain axis” * Several of them may derive from the same gene * They may act via endocrine, paracrine, autocrine or neurocrine transmission Gastrin is produced by G-cells in the gastric antrum and stimu...") Tag: Visual edit
09:39, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 3. Vomiting (acute, chronic) (Created page with "Vomiting is the most frequent disorder of gastric emptying. It’s a defence mechanism used to get rid of potentially dangerous substances. It’s commonly preceded by nausea. Parasympathetic tone always increases during vomiting. Vomiting involves closing the pylorus, retroperistaltic movements in the intestines, high abdominal pressure, and opening of the cardia and lower oesophageal sphincter. The increased abdominal pressure comes from the contracting abdominal musc...") Tag: Visual edit
09:38, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 2. Disorders of gastric filling and emptying (Created page with "== Pyloric stenosis == Pyloric stenosis is a condition that is mostly seen in paediatrics. It occurs secondarily to hypertrophy and hyperplasia of the muscular layers of the pylorus, the most distal part of the stomach. This impairs emptying of the stomach contents into the duodenum. In advanced cases can the stomach become dilated due to the obstruction. Symptoms include colicky pain and projectile vomiting, which may cause exsiccosis in severe cases. The vomit will no...") Tag: Visual edit
09:37, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 1. Disorders of chewing, swallowing and esophagus functions – the gastro-esophageal reflux disease. (Created page with "== Salivation and chewing == Food is processed in the oral cavity by breaking it into smaller pieces by chewing and by mixing it with saliva and digestive enzymes. This forms a ''bolus'' which then gets into the stomach by swallowing. Proper oral preparation of food is essential also for digestion and absorption of food in the intestines. We produce around 1.5L of saliva every day. Carbohydrate digestion begins already in the oral cavity with the amylase enzyme that is...") Tag: Visual edit
09:36, 28 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page Category:Pathophysiology 2 (Created page with "Category:3rd year") Tag: Visual edit
14:09, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 87. Definitions and causes of sepsis and trauma (Created page with "== Systemic inflammatory response syndrome == Systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) is a condition where there is widespread unregulated inflammation in the body. The term has fallen out of favour and is not used anymore. === Definition === SIRS is defined as having two or more of the following parameters: * Body temperature < 36℃ or >38℃ * Heart rate > 90 bpm * Respiratory rate > 20/min * White blood cell count < 4000/µL or > 12000/µL === Etiology ===...") Tag: Visual edit
14:07, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 85. Tissue injury, inflammation, lymphatic circulation (Created page with "Inflammation is the major sign of infection. It’s the non-specific defence reaction against damaging effects, so-called ''noxious stimuli''. A noxious stimulus is any damage-inducing effect. The classical basic signs of inflammation are: * Calor – warmness * Rubor – redness * Tumor – swelling * Dolor – pain * Functio laesa – loss of function Nowadays we consider inflammation as a pathological process and not by the morphological signs. == Etiology == ===...") Tag: Visual edit
14:06, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 84. Hypotonicity. Pathogenesis and consequences (Created page with "Hypoosmolarity may develop due to: * Water poisoning * Moderate water intake in renal failure * Syndrome of inappropriate ADH (SIADH) * Severe oedema * Salt deprivation * Sweating and drinking just water * Addison’s disease * Renal tubular acidosis IV * Cystic fibrosis Again are many of these causes seen before because they cause hypovolaemia or hypervolaemia. Those that are new are bolded, for more details on the others can you check topic 81 and 82. In salt depriv...") Tag: Visual edit
14:05, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 83. Hyperosmolarity, hypertonicity. Forms, causes, consequences (Created page with "The osmotic pressure (osmolarity) of all water compartments in the body is around 280 – 300 mOsm/kg. Because it’s the same in all compartments is the body normally isotonic or normotonic. The target for osmoregulation isn’t to regulate the number of osmoles, it’s to regulate the level of water. We have osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus. When the body is hypertonic will water leave the cells and enter the interstitium, causing the cells to shrink. These osmorecep...") Tag: Visual edit
12:41, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 82. States of elevated extracellular volume. Causes, mechanisms and consequences (Created page with "{| class="wikitable" !Hypotonic hypervolaemia (more water is gained than salt) !Normotonic hypervolaemia (salt and water gain are equal) !Hypertonic hypervolaemia (more salt is gained than water) |- | * Enhanced water intake * Severe renal failure with increased water intake * SIADH * Severe oedema * IV glucose solution infusion | * IV saline infusion * Increased salt intake * Not severe oedema | * Conn syndrome * Cushing syndrome * Extreme salt intake |} == Hypotonic h...") Tag: Visual edit
12:39, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 81. States of decreased extracellular volume, and their consequences (Created page with "Extracellular space = ECS = Intravascular space + interstitial space Intracellular space = ICS Intravascular space = IVS We must know the difference between osmolarity and tonicity. Osmolarity is the measure of how many osmoles, i.e. dissolved particles are in a solution. If solution A contains more salt than solution B will, all other things being equal, solution A have higher osmolarity than solution B. Tonicity is the measure of how different the osmolarity of tw...") Tag: Visual edit
12:34, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 80. Disorders of potassium balance. Hypo- and hyperkalaemia (Created page with "98% of all potassium in the body is intracellular. In the intracellular space is the concentration 140 – 160 mM, while in the extracellular space it is just 3.5 – 5.5 mM. The serum potassium level depends in two things: * The internal potassium balance, the balance between the intracellular and extracellular compartments * The external potassium balance, the balance between potassium intake and potassium loss == The internal potassium balance == The internal balan...") Tag: Visual edit
12:31, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 79. Respiratory acidosis and alkalosis. Causes, compensation, consequences (Created page with "= Respiratory acidosis = In respiratory acidosis we have: * pH below 7.35 * Increased pCO2 * Increased actual bicarbonate When kidney compensation kicks in, after around 24 hours, will we also have: * Increased standard bicarbonate * Increased buffer base * Positive base excess == Etiology == Because it is respiratory, it’s caused by a primary increase in pCO2, due to inadequate ventilation. This decreases the pH. When pCO2 increases will actual HCO3– also increa...") Tag: Visual edit
12:29, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 78. Metabolic alkalosis. Causes, compensation, consequences (Created page with "In metabolic alkalosis we have: * pH above 7.45 * Elevated standard (and actual) serum bicarbonate * Often a compensatory increase in pCO2 * Increased buffer base * Positive base excess Because it is a metabolic condition is the primary cause an increase in standard bicarbonate. This increases the 20:1 ratio. The lungs will start to retain more CO2, which increases the ratio toward 20:1 again. It typically occurs because of loss of H+ ions but can also occur because o...") Tag: Visual edit
12:20, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 77. Metabolic acidosis. Causes, compensation, consequences (Created page with "In metabolic acidosis do we have: * pH below 7.35 * Decreased standard (and actual) serum bicarbonate * Often a compensatory reduction in pCO2 * Decreased buffer base * Negative base excess The word “metabolic” indicates that the primary change that caused this acidosis is a decrease in standard serum bicarbonate. This decreases the [bicarbonate]:[pCO2] ratio (20:1). The lungs will respond by decreasing the pCO2 as well, which increases the ratio toward 20:1 again....") Tag: Visual edit
12:18, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Anion gap and metabolic acidosis.png
12:18, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Anion gap and metabolic acidosis.png
12:17, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 76. Compensation of pH-abnormalities (plasma and intracellular puffers, respiration, kidney) and their disturbances (Created page with "In arterial plasma is the concentration of H+ around 4 x 10-8 moles per litre. pH = -log([H+]), so the plasma pH is around -log(4 x 10-18) = 7.4 approximately. Indeed is the normal range of pH in the blood between 7.35 and 7.45, although pH down to 6.8 and up to 7.8 is survivable. The intracellular pH in the cytoplasm is around 7.2, but the pH in other organelles differ. An important thing to remember about pH balance is that the goal isn’t to keep the pH of the plasm...") Tag: Visual edit
12:16, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Proton excretion in the distal tubule.png
12:16, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Proton excretion in the distal tubule.png
12:15, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Bicarbonate reabsorption in proximal tubule.png
12:15, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Bicarbonate reabsorption in proximal tubule.png
12:13, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Henderson-Hasselbalch equation normal pH.png
12:13, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Henderson-Hasselbalch equation normal pH.png
12:12, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Henderson-Hasselbalch equation pCO2.png
12:12, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Henderson-Hasselbalch equation pCO2.png
12:12, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.png
12:12, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.png
12:11, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Carbonic acid buffer 2.png
12:11, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Carbonic acid buffer 2.png