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12:11, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Carbonic acid buffer 1.png
12:11, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Carbonic acid buffer 1.png
12:09, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 75. Acute diffuse glomerulonephritis (Created page with "Acute (diffuse) glomerulonephritis (acute <abbr>GN</abbr>) is a term for many disorders that can cause acute inflammation of the glomeruli. It comprises 10% of the cases of parenchymal acute renal failure. There can be many causes for acute glomerulonephritis. Most of them have immunological background. Common for all of them is that the glomeruli are damaged. == Etiology == Common causes include: * Immunological ** Post-streptococcal (most frequent) ** Autoimmune (es...") Tag: Visual edit
12:09, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 74. Acute tubular nephropathy (Created page with "Acute tubular nephropathy, or acute tubular necrosis (ATN) as it’s been known as in the last 40 years, is responsible for 80% of all renal parenchymal causes of acute renal failure. It’s mortal in 5- 10% of cases, where permanent damage is sustained, but in the majority of cases will the kidney functions be normalized. We have two types of ATN: Ischaemic type and toxic type. == Ischaemic acute tubular necrosis == Ischaemic ATN involves such a severe hypoperfusion t...") Tag: Visual edit
09:50, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 73. Renal circulation. Cardiorenal syndrome (Created page with "== Renal circulation == The kidneys receive a lot of blood: 20 – 25% of resting CO. The oxygen extraction is very low, because the abundant circulation isn’t meant to serve oxygen but to be filtered. The tubules are what need the most oxygen in the kidneys. In normal cases does the cortex receive much more blood than the medulla. However, when the RBF is decreased will the ratio be reduced – the cortex will still receive most blood of the two, but the difference...") Tag: Visual edit
09:49, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 72. Acute renal failure. Occurrence, general features – extrarenal uremia. Prerenal azotemia. Postrenal failure (Created page with "Acute kidney injury (<abbr>AKI</abbr>), previously called acute renal failure (ARF), is a clinical syndrome which is characterised by an acute decrease in <abbr>GFR</abbr> (over hours or days), as evidenced by elevated creatinine. This means that the kidney filters less of the plasma than normal, causing waste products usually excreted by the kidney to accumulate. ''Because there isn’t always a renal “failure” in this condition, it has been renamed from acute rena...") Tag: Visual edit
09:46, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 71. Uremic coma (Created page with "In uraemia is central nervous system involvement frequent, especially when <abbr>GFR</abbr> is below 15 mL/min, as it is in end-stage renal failure. This condition is called uraemic encephalopathy. Important symptoms include: * Fatigue * Seizures * Confusion * Decreased cognitive function * Coma (in severe untreated cases) ''As you can see is coma only a small part of uraemic encephalopathy. It therefore doesn’t make sense to use the phrase “uraemic coma”. Almost...") Tag: Visual edit
09:45, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 70. Metabolic disorders and organ dysfunctions in uraemia (Created page with "Azotaemia is defined as an elevation of waste products like urea and creatinine in the blood. This is not always symptomatic. On the other hand, uraemia refers to the clinical symptoms which occur in response to the toxic effects of urea, creatinine and other waste products. Uraemia classically occurs in the setting of end stage renal disease (ESRD), the last stage of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Uraemia and end stage renal disease are sometimes used interchangeably....") Tag: Visual edit
09:42, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 69. Chronic renal failure. Causes, characteristics and progression (Created page with "This condition was previously called chronic renal failure, but it’s nowadays called chronic kidney disease (CKD), as the definition no longer only includes those with “failing” kidneys. Chronic kidney disease is defined as any kidney abnormality which lasts for more than 3 months. This abnormality can be any of the following: * Abnormal <abbr>GFR (high or low)</abbr> * Abnormal albuminuria * Abnormal urine analysis * Abnormal electrolyte balance * Abnormal histol...") Tag: Visual edit
09:40, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 68. Non-excretory kidney functions and their abnormalities (Created page with "== Blood pressure regulation == The kidney has two ways to influence the blood pressure – it has one system to increase it (the pressor system, RAAS) and one system to decrease it (the depressor system) The kidney pressor system is activated by low intrarenal blood pressure, which occurs when the RBF is decreased or when the systemic blood pressure is low. This enhances renin secretion by juxtaglomerular cells. Renin will cleave angiotensinogen (produced by the liver)...") Tag: Visual edit
09:38, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 67. Oliguria, polyuria. Renal functions in the elderly (Created page with "This topic mostly discusses the mechanisms and causes of polyuria and oliguria, and the function of diuretics. == Oliguria == Oliguria is defined as a urine production of less than 400 – 500 mL per day. At this point is the urine maximally concentrated (1200 – 1300 mOsm/kg), meaning that this is the least amount of urine a healthy kidney in a not-dehydrated body can produce. Oliguria can occur due to: * Low <abbr>GFR</abbr> ** Very few functional nephrons, so that...") Tag: Visual edit
09:36, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 66. Hyposthenuria, asthenuria, osmotic diuresis (This figure shows ADH’s effect on the osmolarity (and therefore the specific gravity) of the urine. The solid line shows the situation when the osmotic gradient is normal and the stapled line shows the situation in hyposthenuria. Note that ADH has a much larger capacity to regulate the osmolarity of the urine when there is no hyposthenuria) Tag: Visual edit
09:34, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:ADH and hyposthenuria.png
09:34, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:ADH and hyposthenuria.png
09:31, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Nephron in diabetes insipidus.png
09:31, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Nephron in diabetes insipidus.png
09:31, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Nephron without cortico-medullary gradient.png
09:31, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Nephron without cortico-medullary gradient.png
09:30, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Nephron osmolarity.png
09:30, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Nephron osmolarity.png
09:27, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 65. Proteinuria (Created page with "Proteins aren’t usually filtered out, because most normal plasma proteins are too large for the glomerular pores and they are negative, just like the filter surface. The small amount of protein that is filtered are small in size (below 65 kD) and are reabsorbed by proximal tubular cells where they are metabolized. Normally is only 1-2 g protein filtered per day, but only 40 – 50 mg is excreted. Anything higher than that is proteinuria, which is often a sign of kidne...") Tag: Visual edit
17:53, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 64. Disorders of tubular functions (Created page with "== The tubules work hard == thumb|334x334px|Functions of the tubule Despite there being 180 L of ultrafiltrate produced each day is the urine output only 1 – 1.5 L/day, indicating that the tubules must do a lot of reabsorption. The urine also has a very different composition from the ultrafiltrate. When the tubules dysfunction will both the quantity and the quality of the urine be different. This is a good time to introduce some ne...") Tag: Visual edit
17:53, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Plasma concentration of substances related to GFR.png
17:53, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Plasma concentration of substances related to GFR.png
17:51, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Specific gravity formula.png
17:51, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Specific gravity formula.png
17:50, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Functions of the tubule.png
17:50, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Functions of the tubule.png
17:41, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 63. Pathophysiology of glomerular filtration (Created page with "== Renal blood flow == thumb|264x264px|Functions and anatomy of the nephron The kidney receives enormous amounts of blood flow. The renal blood flow (RBF) is around 1200 mL or 20 – 25% of the cardiac output in rest. However, this large blood flow isn’t because the kidneys need a lot of oxygen (they don’t, as we’ll see later), but rather because the glomerular filtration rate depends on the RBF. Renal arteries enter the nephron as af...") Tag: Visual edit
17:38, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Kidney oxygen utilisation.png
17:38, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Kidney oxygen utilisation.png
17:37, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Nephron function.png
17:37, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Nephron function.png
17:36, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 62. Granulocytes in inflammatory processes (Created page with "== Functions of granulocytes == Neutrophil granulocytes have 2 important immune functions: Phagocytosis and releasing contents of its granules. Neutrophils have 2 types of granules, which contain different compounds: * Primary granules ** Hydrolase ** Elastase ** Collagenase ** Neutrophil myeloperoxidase (MPO) ** Bactericids * Secondary granules ** Lactoferrin ** NADPH oxidase elements ** Others Neutrophils in the body reside in the following locations: * 90% in bone...") Tag: Visual edit
17:34, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 61. Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) (Created page with "Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) is what occurs when something causes an uncontrolled activation of coagulation and fibrinolysis. It’s characterised by the presence of both thrombosis and haemorrhage simultaneously, and it may cause organ failures or even death. It does not occur by itself, but is rather a result of another severe disorder. Following the uncontrolled activation of coagulation that leads to the formation of microthrombi everywhere in the bo...") Tag: Visual edit
17:33, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 60. Thrombosis. Causes and consequences (Created page with "Thrombosis, formation of blood clots where they're not physiologically necessary, is an important component of various common disorders. Thrombi can cause problems locally or they can loosen and travel to other vessels, a process called embolisation. Thrombi can form in veins or arteries. == Etiology == Virchow’s triad described the major risk factors for thrombosis: * Impaired blood flow (stasis) ** Immobilization (bed-ridden people, long flights) ** Varicose veins...") Tag: Visual edit
17:26, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 59. Congenital and acquired coagulopathies (Created page with "Disorders where problems with the clotting factors in the blood are called coagulopathies. The goal of the clotting cascade is to form fibrin from fibrinogen. While problems with the vessels or platelets cause small bleedings will coagulopathies cause large bleedings, like haematomas. The bleeding time is normal (except in von Willebrand disease), but the clotting time is prolonged. The classification goes like this: * Hereditary ** Haemophilia A – factor VIII defici...") Tag: Visual edit
17:23, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 58. Bleeding abnormalities due to platelet or vascular factors (Created page with "Haemostasis is the process that causes bleeding to stop. It’s basically the opposite of haemorrhage. Coagulation is obviously an important part. Haemostasis has three parts: * Vasoconstriction of the affected vessel ** Happens within seconds ** Via neural and humoral pathways * Platelet adhesion and aggregation forms a platelet plug ** Takes 3-7 minutes (the bleeding time) * Coagulation occurs ** Fibrin is deposited ** Takes 5-10 minutes (the clotting time) Fibrinoly...") Tag: Visual edit
17:19, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 57. Polycythemias, polyglobulias (Created page with "The condition where the number of RBCs in the blood is ''increased'' has two names, depending on whether it’s primary or secondary. It’s called ''polycythaemia'' if it’s primary and ''polyglobulia'' if it’s secondary. At least according to POTE. In the international literature, the term polyglobulia is a seldom-used synonym for polycythaemia. == Polycythaemia vera == Polycythaemia vera is a benign myeloproliferative neoplasm in the bone marrow which causes the...") Tag: Visual edit
17:17, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 56. Haemolytic anaemias (Created page with "Conditions that cause destruction of RBCs (and therefore decrease their lifespan) are called haemolytic anaemias. Two types exist: Corpuscular haemolytic anaemias have some problems with the RBCs themselves that causes them to have decreased lifetime. Common problems include problems with the membrane, enzymes or haemoglobin. Extracorpuscular haemolytic anaemias include healthy RBCs, however external factors cause them to be destroyed, like mechanical trauma, toxins or...") Tag: Visual edit
17:16, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 55. Deficiency anaemias (Created page with "Deficiency anaemias are anaemias characterised by deficiencies of one of the essential components of RBC production. They all lead to reduced RBC production. == Iron deficiency anaemia == Iron deficiency is the most frequent deficiency state in developed countries. It can occur due to: * Deficiency iron intake ** Bad diet ** Protein-calorie malnutrition (PCM) ** Strict vegans ** Anorexia * Malabsorption ** Low stomach acid (hypochlorhydria) ** Vitamin C deficiency ** C...") Tag: Visual edit
17:14, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 54. Aplastic anemia and anemias of complex etiology in disease states (Created page with "== Aplastic anaemia == Aplastic anaemia is any anaemia associated with severe decrease or death of haematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. It results in fewer RBCs being produced. It can be caused by: * Drugs ** Drugs against hyperthyroidism ** Antihypertensive drugs ** Antipsychotics * Irradiation ** Cancer treatment * Chemicals ** Benzene ** Organic solvents ** Insecticides * Viruses ** Hepatitis ** HIV ** Epstein-Barr virus * Hereditary ** Fanconi anaemia ** Di...") Tag: Visual edit
17:13, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 53. Forms, general pathophysiology and consequences of anaemia (Created page with "== Refresher on the blood == The most important components of the blood are: {| class="wikitable" !Component !Concentration |- |Na+ |135 – 145 mmol/L |- |K+ |3.5 – 5.0 mmol/L |- |Ca2+ |2.3 – 2.7 mmol/L |- |Cl– |100 – 106 mmol/L |- |Protein |60-84 g/L |- |Albumin |35-50 g/L |- |Haemoglobin |140 – 160 g/L |- |RBCs |4 – 5 million/μL or 4 – 5 trillion (T) /L |} Cells in the body communicate with the outside world via the extracellular spaces. The most import...") Tag: Visual edit
17:07, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 52. Dyspnoea (Created page with "Dyspnoea is defined as the subjective feeling of difficulty to breathe. Patients usually complain about an unpleasant feeling of awareness of respiratory efforts, shortness of breath and angina-like thoracic pressure. Dyspnoea isn’t ''always'' accompanied by respiratory failure, however they often occur together. It always involves an increased work of breathing. It can be caused by: * Exercise (not pathological) * Increased respiratory drive ** Hypoxaemia ** Metabo...") Tag: Visual edit
17:06, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 51. Partial or complete respiratory failure (Created page with "Respiration is sufficient when it is able to provide enough oxygen to and remove enough carbon dioxide from the tissues. If this is not the case, we have ''respiratory failure''. We have two types of respiratory failure, partial and global. == Partial respiratory failure == Partial respiratory failure is also called hypoxaemic normocapnic or type I respiratory failure. In partial respiratory failure is the pO2 in the arteries lower than 60 mmHg, meaning there is hypoxae...") Tag: Visual edit
17:00, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 50. Causes and consequences of increased airway resistance – causes and consequences of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) – emphysema (Created page with "== Obstructive pulmonary disorders == In obstructive lung diseases is the non-elastic airway resistance increased, mostly during expiration. It can be due to extrathoracic or intrathoracic obstructions. When extrathoracic obstructions are present is inspiration hampered while expiration is mostly normal. Examples of extrathoracic obstructions include: * Post-intubation hardening of the trachea * Compression of trachea ** Goitre ** Tumour ** Laryngeal spasm Extrathorac...") Tag: Visual edit
16:56, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 49. Forms and mechanisms of hypoxia. Ways of compensation – cyanosis (Created page with "Hypoxia refers to a decreased supply or utilization of oxygen in tissues. There are four ways tissues can get too little oxygen, so we have four types of hypoxia. == Cyanosis == Cyanosis is the bluish discoloration of skin and mucosa that occurs in some types of hypoxia. Haemoglobin exists in two main forms, the form that has bound oxygen and the form that hasn’t, called reduced haemoglobin or ''deoxyhaemoglobin''. Because the oxygen content of venous blood is lower t...") Tag: Visual edit
16:53, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 48. Disorders of oxygen transport (abnormal hemoglobin, CO-poisoning, methemoglobinemia) (Created page with "We’ve discussed ventilation and diffusion. Now we’re going to talk about oxygen transport. == Oxygen transport in blood == Only 1.5% of the oxygen in the blood is dissolved in the blood fluid itself. The other 98.5% is bound to haemoglobin. The partial pressure of oxygen in a vessel measures the total “amount” of oxygen inside the vessel, both dissolved and bound to haemoglobin. File:Haemoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve 2.png|thumb|319x319px|Haemoglobin-oxyge...") Tag: Visual edit
16:52, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Haemoglobin oxygen dissociation curve 3.png
16:52, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Haemoglobin oxygen dissociation curve 3.png