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- 09:29, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 22. Oxidative stress induced signaling pathway (Created page with "Reactive oxygen species like OH°, O2°– and H2O2 are harmful to every cell in the body by increasing the oxidative stress in the cell. The presence of these molecules in a cell elicits a response by the cell. This response aims to reduce the number of these <abbr>ROS</abbr> by upregulating genes for antioxidant proteins that can neutralize the reactive molecules, or by inducing an inflammatory response. File:Reactive oxygen species signalling.png|thumb|344x344px|Thi...") Tag: Visual edit
- 09:28, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Pathways activated by ROS.png
- 09:28, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Pathways activated by ROS.png
- 09:24, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Nrf2 regulation by Keap1.png
- 09:24, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Nrf2 regulation by Keap1.png
- 09:24, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Reactive oxygen species signalling.png
- 09:24, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Reactive oxygen species signalling.png
- 09:23, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 21. Molecular mechanisms of glucose uptake (Created page with "== GLUT transporters == Glucose doesn’t freely diffuse across the cell membrane – it has to be transported into the cell with the help of transport proteins called glucose transporters (GLUT). These transporters transport glucose into cells by facilitated diffusion. There are many subtypes of GLUT transporters, but only five of them are important for us. The different subtypes have different properties. === GLUT1 === GLUT1 is found on almost every cell in the body....") Tag: Visual edit
- 09:15, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 20. Molecular events associated with diabetes (Created page with "''I recommend you to read topic 21 before you read this.'' == Advanced glycation end-products == Advanced glycation end-products (AGEs), are normal molecules which have reacted non-enzymatically with glucose to form dysfunctional molecules. This reaction is called a Maillard reaction. Any biological molecule can become an AGE, including proteins and lipids. Especially proteins, when reacting with glucose, lose their normal function which can cause a variety of adver...") Tag: Visual edit
- 09:13, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 19. pH regulation (Created page with "The normal pH value of the blood is 7.35 to 7.45. Below it is acidosis, and above alkalosis. The pH range that is compatible with life however is 7.0 to 7.9. The stomach lumen has a pH of 1.5 to 2, while the mucosal lining of the stomach has pH 7. Lysosomes and endosomes in the cell are pH 5 while mitochondria are pH 8. [HCO3–] in the blood is normally 24 mM while pCO2 is 40 Hgmm. The pH buffer in the blood, comprised of HCO3– and dissolved CO2, constantly works to...") Tag: Visual edit
- 09:12, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Hepatocyte ammonia metabolism.png
- 09:12, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Hepatocyte ammonia metabolism.png
- 09:11, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 18. Nervous system III (Created page with "== Amyloids == ''Main article:'' ''Amyloids'' Amyloids are aggregates of proteins that have been folded into a special shape that allows the proteins to stick together to form fibrills. These amyloids are usually comprised of mostly β-sheets, so amyloids are sometimes called β-amyloids. File:Misfolded protein fibrils.png|thumb|346x346px|This figure shows how misfolded proteins can end up as fibrils. The arrows represent β-sheets. These sheets are very attracted...") Tag: Visual edit
- 09:09, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Formation of Aβ plaques.png
- 09:09, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Formation of Aβ plaques.png
- 09:08, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Misfolded protein fibrils.png
- 09:08, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Misfolded protein fibrils.png
- 09:08, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 17. Nervous system II (Created page with "== Ion channels == Ever wondered how ion channels can be specific for one ion? How can a Na+-channel not let K+ also pass through? Ion channels are a sort of “tube” in the cellular membrane. Because different ions have different sizes, it is obvious that ions which are too large for the tube cannot pass through. But what stops smaller ions from passing through? An energetical barrier does, not a physical barrier. When the “correct” ion passes through its ion ch...") Tag: Visual edit
- 09:07, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Potassium channel phosphorylation by PKA.png
- 09:07, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Potassium channel phosphorylation by PKA.png
- 09:07, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 16. Nervous system I (Created page with "== Brain metabolism == The neurons mainly use glucose as their energy source, but during starvation they can also use ketones. Neurons express GLUT3 which has a very high affinity for glucose, which gives neurons a very fast glucose uptake. Neurons need this energy because maintaining the membrane potential requires the use of the Na+/K+ ATPase. Glial cells express GLUT1, the “universal” glucose transporter, because they’re not as dependent on a fast glucose uptake...") Tag: Visual edit
- 09:06, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Biosynthesis of norepinephrine and epinephrine.png
- 09:06, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Biosynthesis of norepinephrine and epinephrine.png
- 09:05, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Biosynthesis of serotonin.png
- 09:05, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Biosynthesis of serotonin.png
- 09:05, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Biosynthesis of acetylcholine.png
- 09:05, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Biosynthesis of acetylcholine.png
- 09:05, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Biosynthesis of dopamine.png
- 09:05, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Biosynthesis of dopamine.png
- 13:49, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 15. Sensation (Created page with "== Vision == Rods, the cells that sense light, are unique in one way compared to other cells of the nervous system. While other cells are depolarized when they become activated, rods are hyperpolarized! When resting, the rods are depolarized. This happens because in most cells, a signal is propagated when the amount of a second messenger ''increases'', in rods this happens when [cGMP] ''decreases'', as we will see. The rod cell membrane contains multiple ion-channels th...") Tag: Visual edit
- 13:48, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Mechanism of hair cells.png
- 13:48, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Mechanism of hair cells.png
- 13:48, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Molecular mechanism of sweet taste.png
- 13:48, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Molecular mechanism of sweet taste.png
- 13:04, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Molecular mechanism of olfaction.png
- 13:04, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Molecular mechanism of olfaction.png
- 13:03, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Molecular mechanism of vision.png
- 13:03, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Molecular mechanism of vision.png
- 12:57, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 14. Molecular mechanisms of cardiovascular damages (Created page with "Many intracellular signalling pathways are sensitive to reactive oxygen species, or <abbr>ROS</abbr>. The main sources of ROS in cardiac muscle cells are ''NO synthases, NADPH oxidases'' and mitochondria. Low levels of ROS may not be pathological and is necessary for some pathways, but high levels result in significant pathology. Mostly, ROS disturb posttranslational modifications of proteins involved in signalling, which disturbs the signalling. == PARP pathway == The...") Tag: Visual edit
- 12:57, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:SIRT1 protection against ischaemia.png
- 12:57, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:SIRT1 protection against ischaemia.png
- 12:56, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 13. Molecular mechanisms of blood pressure regulation (Created page with "== The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system == When juxtaglomerular cells in the kidney sense that arterial pressure is low, they convert prorenin into renin. Renin then converts angiotensinogen secreted by the liver into angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is then converted to angiotensin II in lung capillaries and by endothelial cells by ''angiotensin converting enzyme.'' Angiotensin II, which is only 10 amino acids long, is a potent vasoconstrictor and stimulates ADH and ald...") Tag: Visual edit
- 12:56, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Angiotensin II cellular mechanism.png
- 12:56, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Angiotensin II cellular mechanism.png
- 12:55, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 12. Proteins in blood and blood clotting (Created page with "There are multiple families of proteins in the blood. They are, in order from most to least abundant: albumins, globulins, fibrinogen, regulatory proteins, and lastly, clotting factors. The globulins can be divided into four groups: the α1-globulins, the α2-globulins, the β-globulins and the γ-globulins. The alpha and beta globulins are mainly (but not exclusively) used for transport purposes while the gamma globulins are the immunoglobulins (<abbr>IgG</abbr>, <abbr...") Tag: Visual edit
- 12:55, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Normal serum electrophoresis.png
- 12:55, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Normal serum electrophoresis.png
- 12:53, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 11. Biochemistry of blood vessels (Created page with "== Summary == * The endothelium has many important roles, such as <abbr>ECM</abbr> production, oxidation of LDL, inflammation, and regulation of the vascular tone == This is a dry topic == Nitric oxide has many effects on vasculature and is produced by ''endothelial NO synthase''. The effects are smooth muscle relaxation (vasodilation), inhibits thrombosis formation, inhibits leukocyte-endothelial cell adhesion, and inhibiting proliferation of smooth muscle cells. NO s...") Tag: Visual edit
- 12:53, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 10. Genetic disorders of hemoglobin (Created page with "== Summary == * Hemoglobin is comprised of four chains, 2 alpha and 2 beta chains, and four heme units * Sickle cell disease occurs after a mutation in the gene for the beta chain * Problems with the gene for the α-chain causes α-thalassemia, while too little β chain cause β-thalassemia * HbA1c is hemoglobin glycated with glucose on the β-globin chain and its level shows the long term average blood glucose level * Every person has 4 genes coding for the alpha chain...") Tag: Visual edit
- 12:52, 26 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Sickle red blood cell.png
