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• 14:23, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 76. Reabsorption and secretion of different substances in the renal tubule. Methods for their investigation (Created page with "thumb|This figure shows the different parts of the tubular system and which substances are secreted and reabsorbed and where. From Wikipedia. The glomerular filtration rate is approx. 100 mL/min, which equals approx. 180 litres per day. With 180 litres of plasma being filtered into the Bowman space every day you’d expect us to urinate 180L every day. However, we only produce approx. 1,5L of urine every day, and not 180L. The difference of 17...") Tag: Visual edit
• 14:18, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Tubular system.gif
• 14:18, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Tubular system.gif
• 14:16, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 75. Regulation of renal blood flow and pressure. Renin-angiotensin system (Created page with "== Regulation of renal blood flow == The <abbr>GFR</abbr> is proportional to the renal blood flow. If the renal blood flow were not autoregulated a 25% increase in blood pressure would increase the GFR by the same amount. This would increase the amount of urine produced ''30-fold''. To prevent this, the renal blood flow is autoregulated. The renal blood flow is autoregulated as long as the MAP is between 80 and 200 mmHg. This ensures that the RBF and therefore the GFR i...") Tag: Visual edit
• 14:14, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 74. Renal blood flow. Clearance of PAH. Extraction ratio. Filtration fraction (Created page with "== Renal blood and plasma flow == The kidneys receive large amounts of blood flow every minute. This allows the kidneys to filter large amounts of blood every minute. The renal blood flow (RBF) is normally 1200 mL/min, a whopping 20% of the cardiac output. The kidneys receive so much blood flow because they should filter as much blood as possible, not because the kidneys have a large oxygen requirement. In cases where blood flow is needed elsewhere, like during exercise...") Tag: Visual edit
• 14:13, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Extraction ratio.png
• 14:13, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Extraction ratio.png
• 14:12, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 73. Dynamics of glomerular filtration. Glomerular filtration rate. Plasma clearance (Created page with "== Kidneys == === Functions: === The kidneys have many functions. Their major function is to filter the plasma for waste products. Here are all of the kidney’s functions: * Excretory functions ** Excretion of waste products *** Urea *** Creatinine ** Excretion of toxins ** Excretion of certain drugs * Regulation of fluid and electrolyte balance ** Regulation of the fluid volume ** Keeping the plasma isotonic ** Maintaining isoosmolarity ** Regulating pH * Synthesis o...") Tag: Visual edit
• 14:10, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:GFR with PAH.png
• 14:10, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:GFR with PAH.png
• 14:10, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:GFR with inulin.png
• 14:10, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:GFR with inulin.png
• 14:08, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Nephron substances.png
• 14:08, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Nephron substances.png
• 14:07, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Clearance formula.png
• 14:07, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Clearance formula.png
• 14:06, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:GFR from EFP.png
• 14:06, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:GFR from EFP.png
• 14:05, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Ultrafiltration.png
• 14:05, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Ultrafiltration.png
• 14:05, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Starling equation kidney.png
• 14:05, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Starling equation kidney.png
• 14:03, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Glomerular tuft.jpg
• 14:03, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Glomerular tuft.jpg
• 14:02, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Nephron.png
• 14:02, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Nephron.png
• 14:01, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 56. Different types of hypoxia. Oxygen treatment. Mechanisms of acclimatisation. Nitrogen narcosis. Decompression sickness (Created page with "== Hypoxia == Hypoxia refers to inadequate oxygen supply to the cells and tissues of the body or a local part of the body. There are multiple types of hypoxia: * Hypoxaemic hypoxia * Anaemic hypoxia * Circulatory hypoxia * Histotoxic hypoxia When the pO2 levels are abnormally low the condition is actually called ''hypoxaemia'' and not hypoxia. However, these terms are often used interchangeably. Hypoxaemic hypoxia occurs when the pO2 levels are so low that tissues of...") Tag: Visual edit
• 14:01, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 55. Chemical control of respiration. Acidosis, alkalosis (Created page with "== Chemoreceptors == Chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in the level of certain compounds. The most important chemoreceptors are those which sense changes in pCO2, pO2 and H+. There are chemoreceptors both centrally and peripherally in the body. When the chemoreceptors are activated, they will stimulate the respiratory centre, which will stimulate ventilation. Central chemoreceptors: Central chemoreceptors are located in the medulla oblongata. They’re sensitive...") Tag: Visual edit
• 14:00, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 54. Peripheral and central regulatory mechanisms of respiration. Respiratory reflexes (Created page with "The respiration must always be regulated so that breathing is not excessive and not insufficient. If breathing were insufficient then the body wouldn’t get all the oxygen it needs, and it wouldn’t get rid of all the CO2 it produces. If breathing were excessive the body would lose too much CO2, which will cause respiratory alkalosis as we will see in the next topic. The respiration is controlled by three mechanisms: * Centrally by the brainstem and cerebral cortex *...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:54, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 53. O2 and CO2 transport in the body (Created page with "== Oxygen transport in the blood == 99.7% of the oxygen transported in blood is transported by binding to haemoglobin. The remaining 0,3% is dissolved in the plasma. Each molecule of Hb can bind 4 molecules of O2. We can measure the O2 “content” of the blood in two ways. First, we can measure the percentage of all haemoglobin molecules in the blood that are completely saturated with O2. This is called the oxygen saturation. Secondly can we measure the partial press...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:52, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Haemoglobin oxygen dissociation curve.png
• 13:52, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Haemoglobin oxygen dissociation curve.png
• 13:51, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 52. Gaseous exchange in the lungs and tissues (Created page with "The gas exchange occurs in the gas exchange zone of the lung, including the respiratory bronchioli, alveolar ducts and alveoli. The total surface area of the gas exchange zone is on the order of 100 square meters. === The respiratory membrane: === All the membranes O2 and CO2 must diffuse through during gas exchange are collectively called the ''respiratory membrane''. It is extremely thin, at around 0,5 µm. The membrane has six layers, from the alveoli to the capillar...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:50, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 51. Alveolar air, alveolar ventilation, dead spaces. Function of the respiratory passageways (Created page with "== Breathing patterns == ''Eupnoea'' refers to the normal breathing which occurs during rest. The tidal volume is around 500 mL and the respiratory frequency is 14 – 18/min. ''Tachypnoea'' refers to abnormally rapid breathing, with a respiratory frequency > 18/min. It can by physiological, for example during exercise. ''Hyperpnoea'' refers to abnormally high tidal volume, with or without increased respiratory frequency. It can also be physiological, for example durin...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:48, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 50. Mechanics of respiration (functions of respiratory muscles, compliance, intrathoracic pressures, respiratory volumes) (Created page with "== Anatomy of the respiratory system == The respiratory system is comprised of two parts; the upper respiratory tract and the lower. The upper respiratory tract includes the: * Nose * Nasal cavity * Oral cavity * Pharynx * Larynx * Trachea (until the bifurcation) The lower respiratory tract includes the: * Bronchi * Bronchioli ** Cartilaginous bronchioli ** Membranous bronchioli ** Respiratory bronchioli * Alveolar ducts * Alveoli The respiratory bronchioli, alveola...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:47, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Flow volume loop.png
• 13:47, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Flow volume loop.png
• 13:46, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Lung volumes and capacities.png
• 13:46, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Lung volumes and capacities.png
• 13:44, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 49. Mechanisms of vasoconstriction and vasodilatation (Created page with "We’ve talked a lot about vasoconstriction and vasodilation, but we haven’t yet discussed how these processes occur. Vessels have varying amount of smooth muscle in their walls, especially the arteries and arterioles. Vasoconstriction occurs when this smooth muscle contracts, and vasodilation occurs when this smooth muscle relaxes. I won’t describe the exact mechanism of smooth muscle contraction, but I will describe how different vasodilators and vasoconstrictors...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:42, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 48. Reflex control mechanisms of circulation (Created page with "== Cardiovascular reflexes == There are many cardiovascular reflexes involved in the normalization of rapidly changing blood pressure. These reflexes are not involved in the long-term regulation of blood pressure. Like all reflexes these reflexes follow the following sequence of events: # A stimulus occurs, which stimulates a receptor # An afferent nerve is activated # The afferent nerve stimulates a reflex centre, often in the CNS # The reflex centre stimulates an eff...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:42, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 47. The function and importance of baroreceptors in the regulation of circulation (Created page with "Baroreceptors are small receptors located within the walls of vessels. Like the name suggests these receptors detect changes in the blood pressure (by detecting changes in the stretch of the wall of the vessels). If a baroreceptor detects a change in blood pressure it can send a feedback signal to the autonomic nervous system to regulate the blood pressure back to normal. The baroreceptors are especially important in many cardiovascular ''reflexes'' which regulate the b...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:41, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 46. Autoregulation of blood flow in tissues and organs (Created page with "The cerebral, coronary and renal circulations (and so some extent the skeletal muscle circulation) are autoregulated, meaning that their blood flow is regulated so that it is constant independently of the arterial blood pressure. The mechanism of autoregulation is explained in the previous topic and in the topics of the respective circulations. Category:Physiology 1") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:41, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 45. Local control of the vascular smooth muscle (Created page with "Most organs and tissues can regulate their own blood flow in response to their own needs. These needs can be: * They need more oxygen * They need more nutrients * They need to remove more CO2 * They need to remove more H+ * etc. The way tissues regulate their own blood flow is called ''local regulation''. This regulation is important to ensure that blood flow is sufficient to meet the tissues’ metabolic needs, but it is also important to ensure that the blood flow is...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:40, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 44. Control mechanisms of the circulatory system. General considerations (Created page with "The circulatory system is regulated by many different mechanisms: * Neuronal mechanisms * Cardiovascular reflexes * Humoral mechanisms * Local mechanisms == Neuronal mechanisms == As already described, many parts of the circulatory system are innervated by the parasympathetic and, more importantly, the sympathetic nervous system. This includes the heart and blood vessels. Generally, sympathetic activation causes: * Increased heart rate * Increased myocardial contracti...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:37, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 43. Nervous control of the heart (Created page with "There are two major regulatory nervous systems in the body, the parasympathetic and the sympathetic. The heart is innervated by both systems. The two systems have mostly opposite effects. We usually think of the parasympathetic and sympathetic systems as being either “on” or “off”, but that’s not the case. Both systems can be active anywhere from 0% to 100% of full activity. == Parasympathetic activation of the heart == The major parasympathetic nerve of the...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:37, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 42. Skeletal muscle circulation. Cutaneous circulation (Created page with "== Skeletal muscle circulation == The blood flow to the skeletal muscle is not low in rest, when it accounts for 15% of the cardiac output. However, during exercise the blood flow may increase 15 – 25 fold. During exercise: During exercise the sympathetic nervous system will be activated. This has multiple effects: * The heart will be stimulated, so that cardiac output increases * The splanchnic blood flow will be reduced * Veins will vasoconstrict, which increases...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:36, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 41. Splanchnic circulation (Created page with "The splanchnic organs include the stomach, small intestine, large intestine, pancreas, spleen, kidney and liver. The splanchnic circulation refers to all blood flow which originates from the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery and inferior mesenteric artery. The splanchnic organs receive a lot of blood flow in rest, as it is during rest that the gastrointestinal tract and kidneys works the most and therefore requires the most blood. In rest around 20% of the blood...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:35, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 40. Cerebral circulation. The concept of “blood-brain barrier” (Created page with "== Cerebral circulation == The cerebral circulation supplies the brain with blood. It originates from four large arteries, two carotid and two vertebral arteries. These four arteries form a structure called the ''circle of Willis'' at the base of the brain. From the circle of Willis arteries which supply the brain originate. The brain constitutes about 2% of the body weight, but it receives 15% of cardiac output in rest, around 700 mL/min. === Regulation of cerebral ci...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:35, 5 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 39. The coronary circulation (Created page with "The coronary circulation is the one which supplies the heart, especially the myocardium, with oxygenated and nutrient-rich arterial blood. The myocardium doesn’t receive any oxygen or nutrients from the blood which is pumped out by the heart, so it needs its own circulation. The myocardium requires a lot of oxygen, as it is contracting all the time with large force. All tissues supplied by arteries can increase the amount of oxygen they extract from the blood if neces...") Tag: Visual edit