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• 13:46, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 32. Demographic indicators: measures of mortality (Created page with "* Crude death rate – annual number of deaths per 1000 people ** Highest in sub-Saharan Africa, Middle East (15 – 20) ** Lowest in Western countries (1 – 10) ** Average in the world: 7 * Infant mortality rate – annual number of deaths of children < 1 year per 1000 live births ** Highest in sub-Saharan Africa, Middle East (80 – 100) ** Lowest in Western countries (0 – 10) * Maternal mortality rate – annual number of deaths from puerperal causes per 100 000 li...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:45, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 31. Demography: definition, methods, data sources (Created page with "* Demography is the scientific study of the determinants and consequences of changes in human population * You can only enter a population by birth or migration, and you can only leave it by death or migration ** Therefore, fertility, mortality, and migration are important in the study of demographics ** Keeping record of birth and death is simple; migration is not always registered and therefore more difficult to keep record of * Variables in demography ** Age ** Gender...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:45, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 30. Optional and mandatory screening (Created page with "* Mandatory screening ** Breast cancer *** Clinical breast exam every 3 years after 20 *** Yearly mammogram after age 40 *** High-risk women must be screened earlier and more often ** Colorectal cancer *** After age 50 *** By colonoscopy, CT colonography, sigmoidoscopy, faecal occult blood test, etc. *** High-risk persons must be screened earlier ** Cervical cancer *** After age of sexual debut *** Pap smear every year ** Tuberculosis screening for health workers * Optio...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:43, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 29. Basic principles of screening (Created page with "* Screening program = comprehensive program on identification of persons with unrecognized disease or risk factors for disease * Screening test = a test used for the identification of persons with unrecognized disease or risk factors for disease * Screening is a simple process which classifies persons into one of two groups ** The first group is for those with a positive screening test. They should undergo further testing or initiate treatment ** The second group is for...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:43, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 28. Molecular epidemiology (Created page with "* Molecular epidemiology focuses on the contribution and interaction of genetic and environmental risk factors, identified at the molecular level, to disease * Uses techniques of molecular biology, like PCR, next generation sequencing (NGS), ELISA, western blot, etc. * Aims to identify: ** Biomarkers of genetic susceptibility ** Biomarkers of exposure ** Biomarkers of effect ** Biomarkers of disease * Genetic susceptibility ** Some genotypes are protective against a risk...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:42, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 27. Confounders, effect modifiers and possibilities for elimination (Created page with "* Confounding ** A confounding variable is a variable which has not been considered in the study, but which correlates with the risk factor and disease ** What the study observes: risk factor exposure –> disease ** What the reality is: risk factor exposure < –> confounding variable –> disease *** There is no direct association between risk factor exposure and disease ** Example 1: *** A study finds that people who drink coffee have increased risk for lung cancer, a...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:42, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 26. Errors and bias in epidemiological studies (Created page with "* Chance, bias, and confounding should be ruled out in order to talk about a valid statistical association ** A valid statistical association does not imply causation! ** For example, incidence of prostate cancer has increased recently, as have the sales of flat-screen TVs. But there is no causation * The two types of errors in epidemiology ** Type 1 error – when we conclude that there is a difference when in reality there is no difference *** To avoid type 1 errors, w...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:41, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 25. Meta-analysis, systematic review (Created page with "* These are the highest-quality studies * No new data is collected; results from previous studies are combined * Combining multiple studies reduces biases and improve statistical power * Meta-analysis ** Data from multiple similar studies is processed with statistical methods ** Can be performed when there are multiple studies addressing the same question ** Answers questions like: *** What is the size of the effect? *** Is the effect consistent across studies? *** What...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:41, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 24. Experimental (interventional) epidemiological studies (Created page with "* Clinical trials vs field trials ** Clinical trials *** Are performed on patients *** Involve treatments *** Determine secondary and tertiary preventative measures ** Field trials *** Are performed on healthy people *** Involve prophylactic measures *** Determine primary preventative measures * Randomized control trials (RCT) ** Gold standard of clinical trials ** Steps *** People from a sample population are randomly allocated into an intervention group and a control g...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:41, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 23. Cohort studies (Created page with "* Also called follow-up studies, incidence studies, longitudinal studies, etc. * Can be prospective or retrospective ** Prospective cohort study – healthy people with and without exposure to a factor is found and followed up until disease *** At the point of the study only the exposure, not the disease, has occurred *** Example: People who smoke and people who don’t smoke are chosen. They’re followed up until disease develops. ** Retrospective cohort study – a po...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:40, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 22. Case-control studies (Created page with "* Most frequently performed epidemiology studies * A retrospective study – healthy and sick people are found, and their previous exposure to a factor is determined * Aim: to study if an exposure (usually a risk factor) is associated with a disease * Steps ** Select patients with the disease = the cases ** Select persons without the disease with similar baseline characteristics as the cases = the controls ** Compare the exposure of risk factors between these groups ***...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:40, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 21. Ecological studies. Immigrant studies (Created page with "* Ecological study ** Also called a correlational study ** A study which aims to identify a correlation between a risk factor or protective factor and a disease ** Use data which is already collected, from *** Census data *** Registries *** Etc. ** Doesn’t use data based on individual cases ** Uses data based on the whole population, like disease prevalence, incidence, mortality ** Focuses on specific problems, like within a region or population ** Advantages *** Inexp...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:39, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 20. Descriptive epidemiological studies, cross-sectional studies (Created page with "* Descriptive studies ** These studies try to identify the relation between a disease and factors like age, gender, occupation, place, time, etc. ** In descriptive studies no hypothesis is formed and no analysis is performed * Case report ** Description of a case, usually a patient, in a manner which provides information ** Not a true epidemiological study, as only one case is reported ** However, many case reports with similar features may raise suspicion of an underlyi...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:39, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 19. Epidemiological studies: parameters, design (Created page with "* Epidemiological studies can be classified according to ** What the aim is *** Descriptive = describe patterns of disease occurrence in relation to variables **** Case reports **** Case series *** Analytical = test specific hypotheses **** Ecological studies **** Cross-sectional studies **** Case control studies **** Cohort studies **** Clinical trials ** The time period evaluated *** Retrospective = back in time *** Concurrent = current point in time *** Prospective =...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:39, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 18. Standardization (Created page with "* Standardization is used to reduce the effects of confounding variables like age and gender * Standardization is necessary to compare mortality or morbidity rates of populations with different age or gender distribution ** Comparing the crude rates of these populations would be misleading due to different age and gender distribution * Direct and indirect methods of standardization exist * These methods compare the mortality or morbidity rate of the measured population t...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:38, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 17. Epidemiological indicators II: definition and measures of relative risk and odds ratio (Created page with "* Risk is a proportion; odds is a ratio * Risk ** = the probability that an event will occur ** Risk = number of times an event occurred / total number of possible occurrences ** Estimated based on incidence ** If there are 10 people with cancer, and 6 die, the risk of dying is 6/10 = 60% * Odds ** = the chance that an event will occur ** Odds = number of times an event occurred / number of times the event didn’t occur ** If there are 10 people with cancer, and 6 die,...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:38, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 16. Epidemiological indicators I: indicators of disease frequency and population impact of a disease (Created page with "* Maths ** A fraction = number of cases / population ** A ratio = a number in relation to another one ** A proportion = the ratio of a part of the population to the total ** A rate = a proportion over time * Indicators of disease frequency ** Number of cases *** Simplest measure, but doesn’t take into account the size of the population *** Useful for allocating health resources ** Incidence rate *** New cases of a disease in the population over a period of time *** Goo...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:38, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 15. Causation in epidemiology: association and causation (Created page with "* Causation: whether an exposure actually causes a specific disease ** or: whether the association between an exposure and a disease is causative ** Bias, confounding and chance must all be eliminated to establish a causal relationship * Koch’s postulates for causation (of infectious diseases) states that the causative agents can: ** Be isolated from the affected organism in a culture ** Be cultured ** Produce the same disease in a second animal ** Be isolated from the...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:37, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 14. History and objectives of epidemiology (Created page with "* Epidemiology is the study of determinants and distribution of disease * Clinical epidemiology is the use of epidemiology to improve prevention, detection, and treatment of disease * History of epidemiology ** Hippocrates: “Quality of water, how people live, what they drink and eat, whether they exercise, affect their health” ** Ignaz Semmelweis discovered that hand disinfection reduced the incidence of puerperal fever ** John Snow *** The father of epidemiology ***...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:36, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 13. Evidence-based medicine and prevention (Created page with "* Evidence-based medicine (EBM) is “the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients.” ** = the process of turning clinical problems into questions and then systematically locating, appraising, and using contemporaneous research findings as the basis for clinical decisions * EBM is the gold standard of clinical practice * Uses information gathered from randomized control trials, case cont...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:34, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page Category:Public health 2 - General epidemiology and demography (Created page with "I wrote these notes for my public health final. The PH2 topics for the final are more or less the same as the topics for the PH2 exam itself, but there are slight differences. Check the topic lists. Category:1st year") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:33, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 12. Health issues and disparities of people living with disabilities (Created page with "* Disability = lack of ability compared to a standard or norm ** Mental disability (impaired intellectual ability) ** Physical disability (mobility) ** Sensory disability (visual/hearing) * Physical disability ** = impaired ability to move or coordinate movements ** The most frequent disability (10% of USA) ** Due to musculoskeletal or neurological problems ** Causes *** Accidents, injuries *** Genetic diseases (muscular dystrophies, etc.) *** Developmental disorders (in...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:32, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 11. Minorities: Health issues and disparities (Created page with "* Unemployed persons ** 8 – 9% in Hungary ** Stages of unemployment *** 1 – sense of relief *** 2 – unsuccessful in seeking work *** 3 – gives up hope of finding work *** 4 – crumbling life ** Consequences *** Hypertension *** Increased risk for poor habits *** Stress *** Depression *** Suicide * People in poverty ** Subsistence level of poverty – barely enough money to exist *** Increased risk of infectious disease, STD, malnutrition ** Social minimum level...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:32, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 10. Health concerns of elderly. Aging societies (Created page with "* The society is aging – elderly health is becoming more and more important * Ageing (= ''greying'') of Europe ** Refers to the increase in elderly population relative to the workforce ** Due to decreased fertility, decreased mortality, and higher life expectancy * Most deaths in developed countries are due to diseases closely related to ageing, like cancer, stroke, heart disease * There is no evidenced-based proof that dietary supplements delay or stop ageing ** The f...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:32, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 9. Child and adolescent health (Created page with "* Child health ** Definitions *** Early childhood – age 0 to 4 *** Childhood – age 5 to 14 *** Adolescence – age 15 to 19 *** Youth – age 20 – 24 ** Causes of death in children < 5 years *** 45% occur during neonatal period *** 55% occur during the remaining period **** Pneumonia **** Diarrhoeal diseases **** Congenital anomalies **** Injuries *** 80% are due to preventable causes ** School *** School health services are essential in child health ** Prevention...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:31, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 8. Maternal and newborn health (Created page with "* Maternal health ** Before, during and after pregnancy, including during childbirth ** Most maternal adverse outcomes are preventable ** Young, migrant, Roma, low education/low socioeconomic status -> more maternal adverse outcomes ** Diseases during postpartum period *** Postpartum psychosis *** Depression *** Puerperal sepsis ** Maternal mortality *** = number of maternal deaths in a year / number of live births that year *** Very high in high-risk mothers and in deve...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:30, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 7. Health politics (Created page with "* Health politics refers to distributing power, attention and money to: ** Improve health and wellbeing of populations ** Reduce health inequality ** Strengthen public health ** Ensure universal, sustainable and high quality health systems * Philosophical level – advocating for the right to health * Economical level – financing of health care, public health measures * Education level – implement health programmes in school, etc. * Also talk about primordial and pri...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:27, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 6. Health promotion (Created page with "* Health promotion is a form of primordial prevention * It is a process which gives people the ability and knowledge to control and improve their health * 3 key elements of health promotion according to WHO ** Health literacy: giving people knowledge to make healthy choices ** Good governance – policy makers of the country must prioritize health and assign funds to health ** Healthy cities * The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion is an international agreement organize...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:26, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 5. Levels of prevention (Created page with "* Prevention can occur on an individual or on a population level ** Individual level prevention: Counselling, screening, etc. ** Population level prevention: Public health campaigns, programmes, etc. * Primordial prevention ** (Actually a type of primary prevention) ** Involves establishing conditions which minimize health hazards ** Involves the whole population ** Established through public health policies on a national level ** Examples *** Laws against smoking *** In...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:26, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 4. Social risk factors (Created page with "* Psychosocial factors – especially associated with CVD ** Stress ** Hostility ** Depression ** Hopelessness ** Adverse childhood experiences * Socioeconomic factors ** Poor socioeconomic status/economic disadvantage *** Distribution of income is a key determinant in population health *** Large gap between rich and poor people ruins social cohesion Category:Public health 1 - Basics of disease prevention") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:24, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 3. Determinants of health (Created page with "* Lifestyle/behavioural (50%) ** Smoking ** Obesity ** Stress ** Poor nutrition ** Alcohol, drug use ** Exercise * Biology (20%) * Environmental factors (20%) ** Social factors *** Socioeconomic status *** Social exclusion *** Support network *** Addiction *** Stress * Health care (10%) Category:Public health 1 - Basics of disease prevention") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:23, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 2. Definition of health and disease (Created page with "* Biomedical model = health is the freedom from disease ** Model focuses on physical processes of pathology, biochemistry, etc. ** Does not take into account social or individual factors * Biopsychosocial model ** = Human functioning depends on biological, psychological, and social factors ** Health is not purely biological ** More modern * Salutogenic model ** Model concerned with the relationship between health, stress and coping ** Instead of focusing on “what cause...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:23, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 1. History and objectives of public health (Created page with "* History ** Early public health interventions *** Romans diverted human waste from urban areas *** During 14th century’s Black Death, the value of quarantine was discovered ** Hippocrates: the food we eat, the place we live, the life we live affects our health ** John Snow: *** Founder of epidemiology (topic 14). *** He also challenged the miasma theory (that disease is caused by “bad air” (miasma)) ** Percival Pott: Chimney sweepers develop SCC ** Edward Jenner:...") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:20, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page Category:Public health 1 - Basics of disease prevention (Created page with "Category:1st year") Tag: Visual edit
• 13:19, 22 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page Category:1st year (Created page with "Category:Pages by subject") Tag: Visual edit
• 21:16, 15 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 49. Giant cell tumor of bone (osteoclastoma) (Created page with "'''Staining''': HE '''Organ''': Bone tumor sampled by curettage '''Description''': The purplish things are pieces of the tumor. The pinkish things are not. The tumor pieces are comprised of two types of cell. There are osteoclast-type giant cells, which have large eosinophilic cytoplasm and many nuclei. These cells are not neoplastic; they are reactive cells. The cells that are between the giant cells are the neoplastic cells. These cells are primitive mesenchymal c...") Tag: Visual edit
• 21:16, 15 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Giant cell tumour of bone - giant cell2.png
• 21:16, 15 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Giant cell tumour of bone - giant cell2.png
• 21:16, 15 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Giant cell tumour of bone - giant cell.png
• 21:16, 15 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Giant cell tumour of bone - giant cell.png
• 21:15, 15 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Giant cell tumour of bone - overview.png
• 21:15, 15 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Giant cell tumour of bone - overview.png
• 21:15, 15 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 48. Psoriasis (Created page with "'''Staining''': HE '''Organ''': Skin '''Description''': Many changes are characteristic for psoriasis: Hyperkeratosis, which refers to increased thickness of the stratum corneum. Parakeratosis is the phenomenon where the cell of the stratum corneum have nuclei (they usually lose their nuclei). Neutrophilic microabscesses are focal accumulation of neutrophil remnants in the stratum corneum. (don’t mix these with parakeratosis) The epidermis has lost its stratum g...") Tag: Visual edit
• 21:14, 15 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Psoriasis - neutrophilic microabscess.png
• 21:14, 15 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Psoriasis - neutrophilic microabscess.png
• 21:14, 15 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Psoriasis - loss.png
• 21:14, 15 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Psoriasis - loss.png
• 21:14, 15 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Psoriasis - parakeratosis.png
• 21:14, 15 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Psoriasis - parakeratosis.png
• 21:13, 15 November 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Psoriasis - focal lymphocytic infiltrates.png