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14:07, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 85. Tissue injury, inflammation, lymphatic circulation (Created page with "Inflammation is the major sign of infection. It’s the non-specific defence reaction against damaging effects, so-called ''noxious stimuli''. A noxious stimulus is any damage-inducing effect. The classical basic signs of inflammation are: * Calor – warmness * Rubor – redness * Tumor – swelling * Dolor – pain * Functio laesa – loss of function Nowadays we consider inflammation as a pathological process and not by the morphological signs. == Etiology == ===...") Tag: Visual edit
14:06, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 84. Hypotonicity. Pathogenesis and consequences (Created page with "Hypoosmolarity may develop due to: * Water poisoning * Moderate water intake in renal failure * Syndrome of inappropriate ADH (SIADH) * Severe oedema * Salt deprivation * Sweating and drinking just water * Addison’s disease * Renal tubular acidosis IV * Cystic fibrosis Again are many of these causes seen before because they cause hypovolaemia or hypervolaemia. Those that are new are bolded, for more details on the others can you check topic 81 and 82. In salt depriv...") Tag: Visual edit
14:05, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 83. Hyperosmolarity, hypertonicity. Forms, causes, consequences (Created page with "The osmotic pressure (osmolarity) of all water compartments in the body is around 280 – 300 mOsm/kg. Because it’s the same in all compartments is the body normally isotonic or normotonic. The target for osmoregulation isn’t to regulate the number of osmoles, it’s to regulate the level of water. We have osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus. When the body is hypertonic will water leave the cells and enter the interstitium, causing the cells to shrink. These osmorecep...") Tag: Visual edit
12:41, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 82. States of elevated extracellular volume. Causes, mechanisms and consequences (Created page with "{| class="wikitable" !Hypotonic hypervolaemia (more water is gained than salt) !Normotonic hypervolaemia (salt and water gain are equal) !Hypertonic hypervolaemia (more salt is gained than water) |- | * Enhanced water intake * Severe renal failure with increased water intake * SIADH * Severe oedema * IV glucose solution infusion | * IV saline infusion * Increased salt intake * Not severe oedema | * Conn syndrome * Cushing syndrome * Extreme salt intake |} == Hypotonic h...") Tag: Visual edit
12:39, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 81. States of decreased extracellular volume, and their consequences (Created page with "Extracellular space = ECS = Intravascular space + interstitial space Intracellular space = ICS Intravascular space = IVS We must know the difference between osmolarity and tonicity. Osmolarity is the measure of how many osmoles, i.e. dissolved particles are in a solution. If solution A contains more salt than solution B will, all other things being equal, solution A have higher osmolarity than solution B. Tonicity is the measure of how different the osmolarity of tw...") Tag: Visual edit
12:34, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 80. Disorders of potassium balance. Hypo- and hyperkalaemia (Created page with "98% of all potassium in the body is intracellular. In the intracellular space is the concentration 140 – 160 mM, while in the extracellular space it is just 3.5 – 5.5 mM. The serum potassium level depends in two things: * The internal potassium balance, the balance between the intracellular and extracellular compartments * The external potassium balance, the balance between potassium intake and potassium loss == The internal potassium balance == The internal balan...") Tag: Visual edit
12:31, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 79. Respiratory acidosis and alkalosis. Causes, compensation, consequences (Created page with "= Respiratory acidosis = In respiratory acidosis we have: * pH below 7.35 * Increased pCO2 * Increased actual bicarbonate When kidney compensation kicks in, after around 24 hours, will we also have: * Increased standard bicarbonate * Increased buffer base * Positive base excess == Etiology == Because it is respiratory, it’s caused by a primary increase in pCO2, due to inadequate ventilation. This decreases the pH. When pCO2 increases will actual HCO3– also increa...") Tag: Visual edit
12:29, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 78. Metabolic alkalosis. Causes, compensation, consequences (Created page with "In metabolic alkalosis we have: * pH above 7.45 * Elevated standard (and actual) serum bicarbonate * Often a compensatory increase in pCO2 * Increased buffer base * Positive base excess Because it is a metabolic condition is the primary cause an increase in standard bicarbonate. This increases the 20:1 ratio. The lungs will start to retain more CO2, which increases the ratio toward 20:1 again. It typically occurs because of loss of H+ ions but can also occur because o...") Tag: Visual edit
12:20, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 77. Metabolic acidosis. Causes, compensation, consequences (Created page with "In metabolic acidosis do we have: * pH below 7.35 * Decreased standard (and actual) serum bicarbonate * Often a compensatory reduction in pCO2 * Decreased buffer base * Negative base excess The word “metabolic” indicates that the primary change that caused this acidosis is a decrease in standard serum bicarbonate. This decreases the [bicarbonate]:[pCO2] ratio (20:1). The lungs will respond by decreasing the pCO2 as well, which increases the ratio toward 20:1 again....") Tag: Visual edit
12:18, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Anion gap and metabolic acidosis.png
12:18, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Anion gap and metabolic acidosis.png
12:17, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 76. Compensation of pH-abnormalities (plasma and intracellular puffers, respiration, kidney) and their disturbances (Created page with "In arterial plasma is the concentration of H+ around 4 x 10-8 moles per litre. pH = -log([H+]), so the plasma pH is around -log(4 x 10-18) = 7.4 approximately. Indeed is the normal range of pH in the blood between 7.35 and 7.45, although pH down to 6.8 and up to 7.8 is survivable. The intracellular pH in the cytoplasm is around 7.2, but the pH in other organelles differ. An important thing to remember about pH balance is that the goal isn’t to keep the pH of the plasm...") Tag: Visual edit
12:16, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Proton excretion in the distal tubule.png
12:16, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Proton excretion in the distal tubule.png
12:15, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Bicarbonate reabsorption in proximal tubule.png
12:15, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Bicarbonate reabsorption in proximal tubule.png
12:13, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Henderson-Hasselbalch equation normal pH.png
12:13, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Henderson-Hasselbalch equation normal pH.png
12:12, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Henderson-Hasselbalch equation pCO2.png
12:12, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Henderson-Hasselbalch equation pCO2.png
12:12, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.png
12:12, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.png
12:11, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Carbonic acid buffer 2.png
12:11, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Carbonic acid buffer 2.png
12:11, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Carbonic acid buffer 1.png
12:11, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Carbonic acid buffer 1.png
12:09, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 75. Acute diffuse glomerulonephritis (Created page with "Acute (diffuse) glomerulonephritis (acute <abbr>GN</abbr>) is a term for many disorders that can cause acute inflammation of the glomeruli. It comprises 10% of the cases of parenchymal acute renal failure. There can be many causes for acute glomerulonephritis. Most of them have immunological background. Common for all of them is that the glomeruli are damaged. == Etiology == Common causes include: * Immunological ** Post-streptococcal (most frequent) ** Autoimmune (es...") Tag: Visual edit
12:09, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 74. Acute tubular nephropathy (Created page with "Acute tubular nephropathy, or acute tubular necrosis (ATN) as it’s been known as in the last 40 years, is responsible for 80% of all renal parenchymal causes of acute renal failure. It’s mortal in 5- 10% of cases, where permanent damage is sustained, but in the majority of cases will the kidney functions be normalized. We have two types of ATN: Ischaemic type and toxic type. == Ischaemic acute tubular necrosis == Ischaemic ATN involves such a severe hypoperfusion t...") Tag: Visual edit
09:50, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 73. Renal circulation. Cardiorenal syndrome (Created page with "== Renal circulation == The kidneys receive a lot of blood: 20 – 25% of resting CO. The oxygen extraction is very low, because the abundant circulation isn’t meant to serve oxygen but to be filtered. The tubules are what need the most oxygen in the kidneys. In normal cases does the cortex receive much more blood than the medulla. However, when the RBF is decreased will the ratio be reduced – the cortex will still receive most blood of the two, but the difference...") Tag: Visual edit
09:49, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 72. Acute renal failure. Occurrence, general features – extrarenal uremia. Prerenal azotemia. Postrenal failure (Created page with "Acute kidney injury (<abbr>AKI</abbr>), previously called acute renal failure (ARF), is a clinical syndrome which is characterised by an acute decrease in <abbr>GFR</abbr> (over hours or days), as evidenced by elevated creatinine. This means that the kidney filters less of the plasma than normal, causing waste products usually excreted by the kidney to accumulate. ''Because there isn’t always a renal “failure” in this condition, it has been renamed from acute rena...") Tag: Visual edit
09:46, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 71. Uremic coma (Created page with "In uraemia is central nervous system involvement frequent, especially when <abbr>GFR</abbr> is below 15 mL/min, as it is in end-stage renal failure. This condition is called uraemic encephalopathy. Important symptoms include: * Fatigue * Seizures * Confusion * Decreased cognitive function * Coma (in severe untreated cases) ''As you can see is coma only a small part of uraemic encephalopathy. It therefore doesn’t make sense to use the phrase “uraemic coma”. Almost...") Tag: Visual edit
09:45, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 70. Metabolic disorders and organ dysfunctions in uraemia (Created page with "Azotaemia is defined as an elevation of waste products like urea and creatinine in the blood. This is not always symptomatic. On the other hand, uraemia refers to the clinical symptoms which occur in response to the toxic effects of urea, creatinine and other waste products. Uraemia classically occurs in the setting of end stage renal disease (ESRD), the last stage of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Uraemia and end stage renal disease are sometimes used interchangeably....") Tag: Visual edit
09:42, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 69. Chronic renal failure. Causes, characteristics and progression (Created page with "This condition was previously called chronic renal failure, but it’s nowadays called chronic kidney disease (CKD), as the definition no longer only includes those with “failing” kidneys. Chronic kidney disease is defined as any kidney abnormality which lasts for more than 3 months. This abnormality can be any of the following: * Abnormal <abbr>GFR (high or low)</abbr> * Abnormal albuminuria * Abnormal urine analysis * Abnormal electrolyte balance * Abnormal histol...") Tag: Visual edit
09:40, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 68. Non-excretory kidney functions and their abnormalities (Created page with "== Blood pressure regulation == The kidney has two ways to influence the blood pressure – it has one system to increase it (the pressor system, RAAS) and one system to decrease it (the depressor system) The kidney pressor system is activated by low intrarenal blood pressure, which occurs when the RBF is decreased or when the systemic blood pressure is low. This enhances renin secretion by juxtaglomerular cells. Renin will cleave angiotensinogen (produced by the liver)...") Tag: Visual edit
09:38, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 67. Oliguria, polyuria. Renal functions in the elderly (Created page with "This topic mostly discusses the mechanisms and causes of polyuria and oliguria, and the function of diuretics. == Oliguria == Oliguria is defined as a urine production of less than 400 – 500 mL per day. At this point is the urine maximally concentrated (1200 – 1300 mOsm/kg), meaning that this is the least amount of urine a healthy kidney in a not-dehydrated body can produce. Oliguria can occur due to: * Low <abbr>GFR</abbr> ** Very few functional nephrons, so that...") Tag: Visual edit
09:36, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 66. Hyposthenuria, asthenuria, osmotic diuresis (This figure shows ADH’s effect on the osmolarity (and therefore the specific gravity) of the urine. The solid line shows the situation when the osmotic gradient is normal and the stapled line shows the situation in hyposthenuria. Note that ADH has a much larger capacity to regulate the osmolarity of the urine when there is no hyposthenuria) Tag: Visual edit
09:34, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:ADH and hyposthenuria.png
09:34, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:ADH and hyposthenuria.png
09:31, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Nephron in diabetes insipidus.png
09:31, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Nephron in diabetes insipidus.png
09:31, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Nephron without cortico-medullary gradient.png
09:31, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Nephron without cortico-medullary gradient.png
09:30, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Nephron osmolarity.png
09:30, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Nephron osmolarity.png
09:27, 21 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 65. Proteinuria (Created page with "Proteins aren’t usually filtered out, because most normal plasma proteins are too large for the glomerular pores and they are negative, just like the filter surface. The small amount of protein that is filtered are small in size (below 65 kD) and are reabsorbed by proximal tubular cells where they are metabolized. Normally is only 1-2 g protein filtered per day, but only 40 – 50 mg is excreted. Anything higher than that is proteinuria, which is often a sign of kidne...") Tag: Visual edit
17:53, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 64. Disorders of tubular functions (Created page with "== The tubules work hard == thumb|334x334px|Functions of the tubule Despite there being 180 L of ultrafiltrate produced each day is the urine output only 1 – 1.5 L/day, indicating that the tubules must do a lot of reabsorption. The urine also has a very different composition from the ultrafiltrate. When the tubules dysfunction will both the quantity and the quality of the urine be different. This is a good time to introduce some ne...") Tag: Visual edit
17:53, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Plasma concentration of substances related to GFR.png
17:53, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Plasma concentration of substances related to GFR.png
17:51, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Specific gravity formula.png
17:51, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Specific gravity formula.png