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14:05, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 51. Antiepileptic drugs (Created page with "== Epilepsy == An epileptic seizure occurs when there is abnormal electrical activity in the brain. This electric activity is often comprised of synchronous high frequency discharges in groups of neurons in the brain. If a one seizure lasts for more than five minutes or if the patient has two seizures without recovering their consciousness between the seizures, the condition is called ''status epilepticus''. Unlike most other seizures, status epilepticus is a medical em...") Tag: Visual edit
13:50, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 50. Antidepressants (Created page with "== Depression == Depression is a common mental illness. It’s a major cause of disability and premature death. There is an increased risk for suicide, and people suffering from depression have increased risk to die of other causes as well. === Clinical features === * Low mood * Apathy * Anhedonia (reduced feeling of pleasure) * Loss of motivation * Feeling of guilt === Pathomechanism === According to the monoamine theory depression is caused by a deficit of monoamine...") Tag: Visual edit
13:17, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 49. Antipsychotic drugs (Created page with "Psychosis refers to a disordered perception of reality, characterised by delusions, hallucinations and/or disorganized behaviour. It can be a symptom of psychiatric disorders like schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, psychotic depression or drugs like methamphetamine, cannabis or alcohol. In the context of pharmacology “antipsychotic drugs”, also called “neuroleptic drugs” usually refer to those drugs that are used to treat schizophrenia, but these drugs are used fo...") Tag: Visual edit
13:12, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 48. Alcohols: Pharmacology, toxicology (Created page with "Ethanol (hereafter alcohol) is the most commonly used recreational drug in humans. Overdose can cause death due to respiratory and circulation depression. Ethanol itself is responsible for the “positive” CNS effects of alcohol, like euphoria and decreased inhibition. The “negative” effects like headache and nausea are rather caused by ethanol’s metabolite acetaldehyde. == Pharmacodynamics of alcohol == Alcohol acts on the CNS both as a stimulant and as a depre...") Tag: Visual edit
13:11, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 47. Antianxiety and hypnotic drugs (Created page with "Anxiolytic and hypnotic drugs (often called sedative-hypnotic drugs) are those that induce sedation, decrease consciousness, and prevent seizures. They have a general inhibitory effect on the brain. They’re used on a wide range of indications, like anxiety and agitation, insomnia, status epilepticus, to induce anaesthesia, etc. Hypnotic drugs (sleeping pills) are those that induce sleep. It’s not easy to draw a clear line between anxiolytic and hypnotic drugs. Mostl...") Tag: Visual edit
13:06, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 46. Local anaesthetics (Created page with "{| class="wikitable" !Ester type local anaesthetics ! colspan="2" |Amide type local anaesthetics !Toxins |- |Benzocaine !Intermediate duration !Long duration |Saxitoxin (STX) |- |Cocaine |Lidocaine |Bupivacaine |Tetrodotoxin (TTX) |- |Procaine |Mepivacaine |Levobupivacaine | |- |Tetracaine |Prilocaine |Ropivacaine | |} Local anaesthetics are drugs that are used to prevent or eliminate pain, often during smaller surgical procedures. This is in contrast to general anaesthe...") Tag: Visual edit
13:05, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:MoA of local anaesthetics.png
13:05, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:MoA of local anaesthetics.png
13:03, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 45. Laxatives, antidiarrhoeal agents, drug treatment of inflammatory bowel disease and paralytic ileus, digestives, drugs used in cholelithiasis (Created page with "== Laxatives == These drugs stimulate the transit of food through the intestine. The user should always ensure sufficient fluid and electrolyte intake when using any of these. Overuse can lead to an atonic colon where the natural peristaltic activity is diminished. === Indications === * Obstipation * Enteritis – to remove toxins or infective agents * Colon cleansing before surgery, endoscopy or radiological examination === Classification === We differentiate four di...") Tag: Visual edit
11:32, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 44. Emetics, antiemetics and prokinetic drugs (Created page with "== Introduction to vomiting == Vomiting is a defensive response intended to rid the body of toxic or irritating material. It’s regulating by a vomiting centre, comprised of the reticular formation and the area postrema/chemosensitive trigger zone in the fourth ventricle. Many receptors are involved in stimulating vomiting, including: * Histamine H1 receptor * Dopamine D2 receptor * Muscarinic receptor * Serotonin 5-HT3 receptor * Neurokinin NK1 receptor The chemorec...") Tag: Visual edit
11:29, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 43. Drugs used in the treatment of peptic ulcer (Created page with "== Peptic ulcer == Peptic ulcers are mucosal breaks that penetrate the mucosa and may penetrate into the submucosa. They’re usually in the stomach or duodenum. Duodenal ulcers are mostly associated with too much acid while gastric ulcers are mostly associated with decreased protective factors. Both types are associated with alcohol, NSAID use, stress and most importantly, helicobacter pylori. H. pylori is responsible for the vast majority of peptic ulcers. It’s diag...") Tag: Visual edit
11:28, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Regulation of gastric acid production.png
11:28, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Regulation of gastric acid production.png
11:26, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page Category:Pharmacology 2 (Created page with "Category:4th year") Tag: Visual edit
11:26, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 42. Drug treatment of allergic rhinitis. Antitussives, expectorants and mucolytics (Created page with "== Allergic rhinoconjuctivits == Allergic rhinoconjuctivits, or hay fever, is a type I hypersensitivity reaction just like extrinsic asthma. Symptoms include: * Nose and eyes are itchy * Sneezing * Rhinorrhoea (runny nose) * Nasal congestion (stuffy nose) Drugs used in the treatment of allergic rhinitis: * Intranasal sprays ** Histamine H1 receptor antagonists *** Azelastine ** Decongestants (α1 agonists) *** Oxymetazoline *** Xylometazoline ** Anticholinergics *** I...") Tag: Visual edit
11:18, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 41. Drugs used to treat bronchial asthma (Created page with "== Respiratory pharmacology == It’s preferable to administer anti-asthmatic medication by inhalation, because the drug directly reaches the site where it is needed -> onset is quicker and fewer systemic side effects. A particle size of around 1 µm is preferred. Oral treatment is more efficacous but has more side effects and is therefore reserved for severe cases where inhalatory treatment is insufficient. === Inhaler devices === There are two inhaler devices which ar...") Tag: Visual edit
11:17, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:GINA asthma recommendations.png
11:17, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:GINA asthma recommendations.png
11:15, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 40. Immunosuppressants, immunomodulators, treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (Created page with "Immunosuppression refers to decreasing the activity of the immune system through cytotoxic effects or through bone marrow suppression. In other words, the activity of the immune system is decreased because there are fewer white bloods cells. In contrast, immuno''modulation'' refers to ''altering'' the immune response, without any bone marrow suppression or cytotoxic activity. It often involves inhibiting the function of certain WBCs or inhibiting certain cytokines, but...") Tag: Visual edit
11:13, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 39. Antineoplastic drugs: Biological therapy (Created page with "We’ve discussed the cytotoxic drugs, which are cytotoxic to all cells but mostly for tumor cells. We will now discuss the non-cytotoxic agents. These are not directly cytotoxic but rather inhibit mechanisms needed for growth and division of tumor cells specifically. As a result, they’re less toxic than cytotoxic drugs and therefore cause less side-effects. We can distinguish two types of non-cytotoxic antineoplastic drugs: * Biological agents – these drugs are bi...") Tag: Visual edit
11:08, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:MoA of thymidylate synthetase.png
11:08, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:MoA of thymidylate synthetase.png
11:07, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:MoA of alkylating agents.png
11:07, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:MoA of alkylating agents.png
11:06, 18 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 38. Antineoplastic drugs: Cytotoxic drugs (Created page with "Cytotoxic drugs inhibit division of tumor cells and induce their apoptosis, usually by damaging DNA or interfering with mitosis. They’re more effective against rapidly dividing tumor cells. Alkylating agents like cyclophosphamide alkylates and damages DNA. Antimetabolites like methotrexate are structurally similar to important metabolites and can be incorporated into DNA or damage DNA in other ways. Cytotoxic antibiotics like doxorubicin inhibit topoisomerase II and d...") Tag: Visual edit
11:02, 5 April 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 37. Non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs: Drugs other than aspirin or paracetamol. Drugs used to treat gout. (Created page with "== Other NSAIDs == The analgetic and antiinflammatory effects of different NSAIDs are more or less identical when examined on a population level, but some patients respond better to some NSAIDs than others and have more side effects from some NSAIDs than others. So if someone experiences poor efficacy or many side effects from one NSAID, it may be worth to try another. There's some theoretical background which may indicate some NSAIDs being better for some uses than ot...") Tag: Visual edit
20:01, 30 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page Retinitis pigmentosa (Created page with "Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a group of inherited dystrophies of the retina. It's a chronic and progressive degenerative disease which causes progressive loss of retinal photoreceptors, causing progressive vision loss ending in blindness. It usually begins in childhood or early adulthood. There is no known cure. The prevalence is 1 per 5000, and 50% of cases are familial. == Etiology == Mutations in many genes can cause RP, and there are multiple patterns of inheritance...") Tag: Visual edit
19:35, 30 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page Category:Ophthalmology (Created page with "Category:Pages by subject") Tag: Visual edit
15:13, 21 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 36. Non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Aspirin, paracetamol (Created page with "Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are some of the most widely used drugs in the world, and they're among the most frequently implicated drugs in causing hospital admissions. They all have a similar mechanism of action; they inhibit ''cyclooxygenase'' (<abbr>COX</abbr>). This reduces the synthesis of prostaglandins and thromboxanes. This has three main effects: * Antipyretic effect * Anti-inflammatory effect * Analgesic effect === Antipyretic effect === Pro...") Tag: Visual edit
10:30, 21 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 35. Pharmacology of eicosanoids. Drugs acting on smooth muscle (Created page with "== Eicosanoids == thumb|318x318px|Synthesis of eicosanoids. You already know these bad boys, prostaglandins, thromboxanes and leukotrienes. They’re synthesized from membrane phospholipids, which are first converted into arachidonic acid by ''phospholipase A2''. These molecules are very short-lived, meaning that they’re rapidly broken down in plasma after they’re produced. Their half-life is only 1 minute! They’re called eicosano...") Tag: Visual edit
10:24, 21 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Eicosanoid synthesis.png
10:24, 21 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Eicosanoid synthesis.png
15:00, 20 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 34. Serotonin, serotonin receptor agonists and antagonists (Created page with "== Serotonin == Serotonin or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) is an important central and peripheral neurotransmitter as well as a local hormone. 90% of serotonin in the body is found in the neuroendocrine enterochromaffin cells in the <abbr>GI</abbr> tract, where they function as a local hormone. It’s also found in platelets and in serotonergic neurons. === Synthesis and metabolism === Serotonin is synthesised in two steps. Tryptophan is converted into 5-hydroxytryptophane...") Tag: Visual edit
14:26, 20 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 33. Histamine, antihistaminic drugs (Created page with "== Histamine == Histamine is a basic amine that is formed from histidine by ''histidine decarboxylase''. Mast cells, basophils, histamininergic neurons and enterochromaffin cells produce it. Mast cells are especially abundant in the respiratory tract, <abbr>GI</abbr> tract and skin. Mast cells have granules that contain histamine and other compounds. These granules are exocytosed (called degranulation) when the <abbr>IgE</abbr> molecules bound to the cell bind to an ant...") Tag: Visual edit
10:44, 20 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Triple response of Lewis.png
10:44, 20 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Triple response of Lewis.png
14:57, 17 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 32. Drugs affecting hematopoiesis (Created page with "== Growth factors == The normal haematopoiesis depends on the presence of certain growth factors. Increased level of these growth factors stimulates certain cell-lines, as seen in the figure above. By administering these growth factors can we increase the levels of certain cells if their levels are lacking. The growth factors that are bolded are the ones we give clinically. The most important ones are: * GM-CSF (granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor) – sti...") Tag: Visual edit
14:40, 17 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 31. Fibrinolytics, antifibrinolytics, hemostatic agents (Created page with "== Introduction to fibrinolysis == The fibrinolytic system is activated simultaneously with the coagulation cascade. The function of this system is to dissolve the clot after the bleeding has stopped and the damage has been repaired. Many proteins are involved, most important ''tissue plasminogen activator'' (tPA), plasminogen and plasmin. tPA, factors XIa and XIIa and kallikrein all activate plasminogen into plasmin. Plasmin is a proteolytic enzyme similar to trypsin w...") Tag: Visual edit
13:28, 17 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 30. Anticoagulants, antiplatelet drugs (Created page with "== Physiology recap == === General information === Thrombosis is the pathological formation of a “haemostatic” plug within the vasculature in the absence of bleeding. We wish to prevent thrombosis as much as possible, to prevent embolism and ischaemia. A small refresher of haemostasis physiology may be helpful. Haemostasis is the process that causes bleeding to stop when blood vessels are damaged. The process involves three steps: # Vasoconstriction # Adhesion and...") Tag: Visual edit
13:12, 17 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 29. Drugs used to treat hyperlipoproteinemias (Created page with "== Biochemistry recap == === Lipoproteins === Lipoproteins carry lipids in the blood, mostly triacylglycerols (also called triglycerides) and cholesterol. We have multiple types, VLDL, LDL, and HDL, where VLDL contains the most lipid and HDL contains the least. The liver uses VLDL and LDL to transport lipids to the extrahepatic tissues that need energy. HDL carries cholesterol from the extrahepatic tissues back to the liver. Tissues, including the liver, take up LDL us...") Tag: Visual edit
13:07, 17 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 27. Drugs that increase regional blood flow. Drug treatment of obesity (Created page with "== Introduction to drugs used to enhance regional blood flow == These drugs are used to enhance perfusion of organs, either because they require more perfusion or because their perfusion has been compromised by vasospasm or atherosclerosis. More precisely, these drugs are useful in peripheral artery disease-induced intermittent claudication, erectile dysfunction and Raynaud phenomenon. In cases where one artery is blocked by atherosclerotic regions, giving drugs to enha...") Tag: Visual edit
12:37, 17 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 26. Antihypertensive drugs (Created page with "== Hypertension == Hypertension is the most common cardiovascular disease. Its diagnosis should be based on repeated blood pressure measurements under calm conditions. * Mild hypertension – 140/90 to 159/99 mmHg * Moderate hypertension – 160/100 to 179/109 mmHg * Severe hypertension – >180/110 mmHg Hypertension may be secondary to a condition like Cushing’s or pheochromocytoma, but it’s most commonly primary. The blood pressure depends on the cardiac output...") Tag: Visual edit
12:36, 17 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:2018 ESC-ESH treatment guideline of hypertension.png
12:36, 17 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:2018 ESC-ESH treatment guideline of hypertension.png
14:55, 16 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 25. Antianginal drugs (Created page with "== Introduction == As we saw in pathophysiology is increasing the coronary blood flow the only way for myocardium to receive more oxygen. Recall also that most of the coronary blood flow occurs during diastole. An increase in end-diastolic pressure would decrease coronary blood flow as the pressure would compress the coronary vessels. The coronary blood flow depends on the difference in pressure between the aorta and the coronary sinus, so we can it by increasing the ao...") Tag: Visual edit
14:53, 16 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 24. Drugs used to treat congestive heart failure (Created page with "== Introduction == Heart failure is the condition where the heart is unable to supply the body with enough cardiac output. The goal of drug therapy in heart failure is to improve the cardiac function and reduce the symptoms associated with heart failure, like oedema, tachycardia, dyspnoea and fatigue. This can be accomplished pharmacologically in several ways: * Decreasing preload * Decreasing afterload * Increasing inotropy (myocardial contractility) * Inhibiting exces...") Tag: Visual edit
14:50, 16 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 23. Antiarrhythmic drugs (Created page with "== Cardiac electrophysiology == We can divide the normal action potential into 5 phases: # Upstroke phase # Early-fast repolarization # Plateau # Repolarization # Diastole thumb|This shows the action potential of the ventricle. The phases are marked with numbers. These phases can be seen on the figure below. Note that this shows the depolarization of the ventricle. The cardiac pacemaker cells don’t have “normal” act...") Tag: Visual edit
14:48, 16 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Action potential of pacemaker cell.png
14:48, 16 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Action potential of pacemaker cell.png
14:48, 16 March 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Ventricle action potential phases.jpg