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17:50, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Functions of the tubule.png
17:50, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Functions of the tubule.png
17:41, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 63. Pathophysiology of glomerular filtration (Created page with "== Renal blood flow == thumb|264x264px|Functions and anatomy of the nephron The kidney receives enormous amounts of blood flow. The renal blood flow (RBF) is around 1200 mL or 20 – 25% of the cardiac output in rest. However, this large blood flow isn’t because the kidneys need a lot of oxygen (they don’t, as we’ll see later), but rather because the glomerular filtration rate depends on the RBF. Renal arteries enter the nephron as af...") Tag: Visual edit
17:38, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Kidney oxygen utilisation.png
17:38, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Kidney oxygen utilisation.png
17:37, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Nephron function.png
17:37, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Nephron function.png
17:36, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 62. Granulocytes in inflammatory processes (Created page with "== Functions of granulocytes == Neutrophil granulocytes have 2 important immune functions: Phagocytosis and releasing contents of its granules. Neutrophils have 2 types of granules, which contain different compounds: * Primary granules ** Hydrolase ** Elastase ** Collagenase ** Neutrophil myeloperoxidase (MPO) ** Bactericids * Secondary granules ** Lactoferrin ** NADPH oxidase elements ** Others Neutrophils in the body reside in the following locations: * 90% in bone...") Tag: Visual edit
17:34, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 61. Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) (Created page with "Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) is what occurs when something causes an uncontrolled activation of coagulation and fibrinolysis. It’s characterised by the presence of both thrombosis and haemorrhage simultaneously, and it may cause organ failures or even death. It does not occur by itself, but is rather a result of another severe disorder. Following the uncontrolled activation of coagulation that leads to the formation of microthrombi everywhere in the bo...") Tag: Visual edit
17:33, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 60. Thrombosis. Causes and consequences (Created page with "Thrombosis, formation of blood clots where they're not physiologically necessary, is an important component of various common disorders. Thrombi can cause problems locally or they can loosen and travel to other vessels, a process called embolisation. Thrombi can form in veins or arteries. == Etiology == Virchow’s triad described the major risk factors for thrombosis: * Impaired blood flow (stasis) ** Immobilization (bed-ridden people, long flights) ** Varicose veins...") Tag: Visual edit
17:26, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 59. Congenital and acquired coagulopathies (Created page with "Disorders where problems with the clotting factors in the blood are called coagulopathies. The goal of the clotting cascade is to form fibrin from fibrinogen. While problems with the vessels or platelets cause small bleedings will coagulopathies cause large bleedings, like haematomas. The bleeding time is normal (except in von Willebrand disease), but the clotting time is prolonged. The classification goes like this: * Hereditary ** Haemophilia A – factor VIII defici...") Tag: Visual edit
17:23, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 58. Bleeding abnormalities due to platelet or vascular factors (Created page with "Haemostasis is the process that causes bleeding to stop. It’s basically the opposite of haemorrhage. Coagulation is obviously an important part. Haemostasis has three parts: * Vasoconstriction of the affected vessel ** Happens within seconds ** Via neural and humoral pathways * Platelet adhesion and aggregation forms a platelet plug ** Takes 3-7 minutes (the bleeding time) * Coagulation occurs ** Fibrin is deposited ** Takes 5-10 minutes (the clotting time) Fibrinoly...") Tag: Visual edit
17:19, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 57. Polycythemias, polyglobulias (Created page with "The condition where the number of RBCs in the blood is ''increased'' has two names, depending on whether it’s primary or secondary. It’s called ''polycythaemia'' if it’s primary and ''polyglobulia'' if it’s secondary. At least according to POTE. In the international literature, the term polyglobulia is a seldom-used synonym for polycythaemia. == Polycythaemia vera == Polycythaemia vera is a benign myeloproliferative neoplasm in the bone marrow which causes the...") Tag: Visual edit
17:17, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 56. Haemolytic anaemias (Created page with "Conditions that cause destruction of RBCs (and therefore decrease their lifespan) are called haemolytic anaemias. Two types exist: Corpuscular haemolytic anaemias have some problems with the RBCs themselves that causes them to have decreased lifetime. Common problems include problems with the membrane, enzymes or haemoglobin. Extracorpuscular haemolytic anaemias include healthy RBCs, however external factors cause them to be destroyed, like mechanical trauma, toxins or...") Tag: Visual edit
17:16, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 55. Deficiency anaemias (Created page with "Deficiency anaemias are anaemias characterised by deficiencies of one of the essential components of RBC production. They all lead to reduced RBC production. == Iron deficiency anaemia == Iron deficiency is the most frequent deficiency state in developed countries. It can occur due to: * Deficiency iron intake ** Bad diet ** Protein-calorie malnutrition (PCM) ** Strict vegans ** Anorexia * Malabsorption ** Low stomach acid (hypochlorhydria) ** Vitamin C deficiency ** C...") Tag: Visual edit
17:14, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 54. Aplastic anemia and anemias of complex etiology in disease states (Created page with "== Aplastic anaemia == Aplastic anaemia is any anaemia associated with severe decrease or death of haematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. It results in fewer RBCs being produced. It can be caused by: * Drugs ** Drugs against hyperthyroidism ** Antihypertensive drugs ** Antipsychotics * Irradiation ** Cancer treatment * Chemicals ** Benzene ** Organic solvents ** Insecticides * Viruses ** Hepatitis ** HIV ** Epstein-Barr virus * Hereditary ** Fanconi anaemia ** Di...") Tag: Visual edit
17:13, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 53. Forms, general pathophysiology and consequences of anaemia (Created page with "== Refresher on the blood == The most important components of the blood are: {| class="wikitable" !Component !Concentration |- |Na+ |135 – 145 mmol/L |- |K+ |3.5 – 5.0 mmol/L |- |Ca2+ |2.3 – 2.7 mmol/L |- |Cl– |100 – 106 mmol/L |- |Protein |60-84 g/L |- |Albumin |35-50 g/L |- |Haemoglobin |140 – 160 g/L |- |RBCs |4 – 5 million/μL or 4 – 5 trillion (T) /L |} Cells in the body communicate with the outside world via the extracellular spaces. The most import...") Tag: Visual edit
17:07, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 52. Dyspnoea (Created page with "Dyspnoea is defined as the subjective feeling of difficulty to breathe. Patients usually complain about an unpleasant feeling of awareness of respiratory efforts, shortness of breath and angina-like thoracic pressure. Dyspnoea isn’t ''always'' accompanied by respiratory failure, however they often occur together. It always involves an increased work of breathing. It can be caused by: * Exercise (not pathological) * Increased respiratory drive ** Hypoxaemia ** Metabo...") Tag: Visual edit
17:06, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 51. Partial or complete respiratory failure (Created page with "Respiration is sufficient when it is able to provide enough oxygen to and remove enough carbon dioxide from the tissues. If this is not the case, we have ''respiratory failure''. We have two types of respiratory failure, partial and global. == Partial respiratory failure == Partial respiratory failure is also called hypoxaemic normocapnic or type I respiratory failure. In partial respiratory failure is the pO2 in the arteries lower than 60 mmHg, meaning there is hypoxae...") Tag: Visual edit
17:00, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 50. Causes and consequences of increased airway resistance – causes and consequences of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) – emphysema (Created page with "== Obstructive pulmonary disorders == In obstructive lung diseases is the non-elastic airway resistance increased, mostly during expiration. It can be due to extrathoracic or intrathoracic obstructions. When extrathoracic obstructions are present is inspiration hampered while expiration is mostly normal. Examples of extrathoracic obstructions include: * Post-intubation hardening of the trachea * Compression of trachea ** Goitre ** Tumour ** Laryngeal spasm Extrathorac...") Tag: Visual edit
16:56, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 49. Forms and mechanisms of hypoxia. Ways of compensation – cyanosis (Created page with "Hypoxia refers to a decreased supply or utilization of oxygen in tissues. There are four ways tissues can get too little oxygen, so we have four types of hypoxia. == Cyanosis == Cyanosis is the bluish discoloration of skin and mucosa that occurs in some types of hypoxia. Haemoglobin exists in two main forms, the form that has bound oxygen and the form that hasn’t, called reduced haemoglobin or ''deoxyhaemoglobin''. Because the oxygen content of venous blood is lower t...") Tag: Visual edit
16:53, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 48. Disorders of oxygen transport (abnormal hemoglobin, CO-poisoning, methemoglobinemia) (Created page with "We’ve discussed ventilation and diffusion. Now we’re going to talk about oxygen transport. == Oxygen transport in blood == Only 1.5% of the oxygen in the blood is dissolved in the blood fluid itself. The other 98.5% is bound to haemoglobin. The partial pressure of oxygen in a vessel measures the total “amount” of oxygen inside the vessel, both dissolved and bound to haemoglobin. File:Haemoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve 2.png|thumb|319x319px|Haemoglobin-oxyge...") Tag: Visual edit
16:52, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Haemoglobin oxygen dissociation curve 3.png
16:52, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Haemoglobin oxygen dissociation curve 3.png
16:49, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Haemoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve 2.png
16:49, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Haemoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve 2.png
16:47, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 47. Disorders of alveolo-capillary diffusion. Hepatopulmonary syndrome (Created page with "Up until now have we talked about ventilation. Now let’s talk about diffusion. == Alveolo-capillary diffusion == Oxygen gets to the perialveolar capillaries by diffusion from the alveolar space, and carbon dioxide diffuses the opposite direction. Diffusion happens across the alveolo-capillary or diffusion membrane, which has the following layers: * Alveolar epithelial cell (type 1 pneumocyte) * Alveolar basement membrane * Interstitium * Capillary basement membrane *...") Tag: Visual edit
16:44, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 46. Ventilation-perfusion mismatch (VQ). Causes and consequences (Created page with "== The V/Q ratio == Respiration is the most effective when gas exchange takes place in a well-ventilated alveolus while the capillary blood supply of the alveolus is good. We need a method to evaluate this, so we introduce two new symbols. V is the ''alveolar ventilation'', while Q is the ''perialveolar capillary blood perfusion''. They’re both measured in litres per minute. We often talk about the ratio between the two, the ventilation/perfusion ratio, or V/Q ratio....") Tag: Visual edit
16:42, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Ventilation and perfusion in the different areas of the lung.png
16:42, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Ventilation and perfusion in the different areas of the lung.png
16:41, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 45. Acute and chronic alveolar hyperventilation (Created page with "There are some reasons someone might hyperventilate to cover physiological needs, like during exercise. This hyperventilation is compensatory due to increased CO2 production, and is necessary to keep the pCO2 levels normal. However, these cases are not ''alveolar'' hyperventilation. By definition, alveolar hyperventilation is when alveolar ventilation ''exceeds'' the need, being out of proportion to the pCO2 production. Clinically, we see this as arterial pCO2 below 36...") Tag: Visual edit
16:40, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 44. Alveolar hypoventilation. Causes and consequences. (Created page with "Alveolar ventilation is the gas exchange within the alveoli within a certain time, often 1 minute. The normal value of tidal volume is 500 mL. Of these 500 mL approx. 350 mL reach the alveoli while 150 mL fill the dead space. When we take deep breaths the ratio between alveoli ventilation and dead space ventilation increases. When we take shallow breaths the ratio decreases. Alveolar hypoventilation is when the alveolar ventilation is insufficient compared to the requir...") Tag: Visual edit
16:38, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 43. The work of breathing. Abnormalities of elastic resistance, restrictive disorders (Created page with "== Mechanics of breathing == The pressure in the pleural space, the space between the visceral and parietal layers of the pleura is -4 cmH2O in rest. The intrapleural pressure is -10 cmH2O in the apex of the lung and -2.5 cmH2O in the base of the lung. In other words, the intrapleural pressure is higher at the level of the base than at the level of the apex. This is due to gravity pulling the air down to the base from the apex. To breathe in the thoracic cavity must exp...") Tag: Visual edit
16:38, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Work of breathing related to breathing frequency and volume.png
16:38, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Work of breathing related to breathing frequency and volume.png
16:36, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Laminar and turbulent flow.png
16:36, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Laminar and turbulent flow.png
16:36, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Elastic resistance in alveoli.png
16:36, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Elastic resistance in alveoli.png
16:34, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 42. Disorders of the control of breathing. Age-dependent changes. Sleep-apnea syndrome (Created page with "For respiration to be efficient must all these processes work correctly: * Ventilation * Diffusion of gases across the alveolo-capillary membrane * Transport of gases in the blood * Oxygen uptake of cells We’ll start by examining the regulation of these processes. == Regulation of respiration == Neurons that control the breathing muscles sit in the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata and pons. The respiratory centre receives inputs from chemoreceptors, mecha...") Tag: Visual edit
16:33, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Abnormal breathing patterns.png
16:33, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Abnormal breathing patterns.png
16:33, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Cheyne-Stokes respiration.png
16:33, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Cheyne-Stokes respiration.png
15:31, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 41. Principles and evaluation of respiratory function tests. Characteristics and parameters of abnormal breathing mechanics (Created page with "Respiratory function tests like the full-body plethysmography can be used to measure dynamic and static lung volumes and airflow rates. These tests can be used to diagnose pulmonary disorders and differentiate between obstructive and restrictive lung diseases. In obstructive disorders the dynamic parameters are often abnormal. Decreased Tiffeneau index and problems exhaling are characteristic. In restrictive disorders the static parameters are often abnormal. Normal Ti...") Tag: Visual edit
15:30, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Flow-volume curve in intrathoracic airway obstruction.png
15:30, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Flow-volume curve in intrathoracic airway obstruction.png
15:29, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Flow-volume curve in extrathoracic airway obstruction.png
15:29, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Flow-volume curve in extrathoracic airway obstruction.png
15:29, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Flow-volume curve in obstructive disorders.png