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10:11, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 9. The intestinal tube and its derivatives (with the exception of the pharyngeal gut). Malformations (Created page with "== Learning objectives == * What is the gut tube, and when is it formed? * What are the parts of the gut tube? * What are the derivatives of the foregut? * Which artery supplies the foregut? * Describe the formation of the oesophagus * Describe the formation of the stomach * Describe the formation of the liver * Describe the formation of the pancreas * What are the derivatives of the midgut? * Which artery supplies the midgut? * Describe the formation of the primary int...") Tag: Visual edit
10:10, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 8. Differentiation and derivatives of the pharyngeal pouches and clefts. Malformations (Created page with "== Learning objectives == * What are the pharyngeal pouches? * What are the pharyngeal clefts? * What are the derivatives of the first pharyngeal pouch? * What are the derivatives of the second pharyngeal pouch? * What are the derivatives of the third pharyngeal pouch? * What are the derivatives of the fourth pharyngeal pouch? * What are the derivatives of the pharyngeal clefts? * What is a branchial fistula? * What is a lateral cervical cyst? == Pharyngeal pouches and...") Tag: Visual edit
10:09, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 7. Differentiation of the pharyngeal arches. Malformations (Created page with "== Learning objectives == * What are the pharyngeal arches? * What are the derivatives of the first pharyngeal arch? * What are the derivatives of the second pharyngeal arch? * What are the derivatives of the third pharyngeal arch? * What are the derivatives of the fourth pharyngeal arch? * What are the derivatives of the sixth pharyngeal arch? * What are the first arch syndromes? == Pharyngeal arches == During the fourth week the ''pharyngeal apparatus'' develops. The...") Tag: Visual edit
10:08, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 6. Development of the face, formation of the nasal and oral cavities. Malformations (Created page with "== Learning objectives == * What are facial prominences? * In which week do the facial prominences appear? * What forms from the frontonasal prominence? * What forms from the nasal prominences? * What forms from the maxillary prominences? * What forms from the mandibular prominences? * How is the nasolacrimal duct formed? * Describe the development of the palate * What does the nasal septum develop from? * Describe the development of the paranasal sinuses * Describe the...") Tag: Visual edit
10:08, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 5. Development of the blood vessels. Malformations (Created page with "== Learning objectives == * From which embryonic tissue does blood and blood vessels develop from? * Where do the first blood cells of the foetus arise? * Where do the definitive blood cells originate from? * What is the first major haematopoietic organ in the foetus, and for how long does it remain as the major organ? * What is the definite major haematopoietic organ? * What are the two mechanisms by which blood vessels are formed? * What is vasculogenesis, and which m...") Tag: Visual edit
10:06, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 4. Development of the skull. Growth of the bones. Malformations (Created page with "== Learning objectives == * From which embryonic tissues do the various parts of the skeleton originate from? * What is mesenchyme? * Describe endochondral ossification * Which bones are formed by endochondral ossification? * Describe intramembranous ossification * Which bones are formed by intramembranous ossification? * What are the parts of the skull? * From which embryonic tissues does the membranous neurocranium originate from? * What are the sutures and fontanelle...") Tag: Visual edit
10:05, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 3. Differentiation of the mesoderm. Development of the serous membranes and the body cavities. Malformations (Created page with "== Learning objectives == * What are the three subtypes of mesoderm? * Which tissues arise from the paraxial mesoderm? * Which tissues arise from the intermediate mesoderm? * Which tissues arise from the lateral plate mesoderm? * What is the space between the parietal and visceral mesoderm called? * What is the septum transversum, and what is its function? * Which structures separates the pleural and pericardial cavities, and what will these structures give rise to? * W...") Tag: Visual edit
10:05, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:The different mesoderms and their derivatives.jpg
10:05, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:The different mesoderms and their derivatives.jpg
10:04, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 2. Formation of the trilaminar germ disk and the folding (Created page with "== Learning objectives == * What occurs during gastrulation? * When does gastrulation occur? * Describe the process of gastrulation * Which tissues arise from the ectoderm? * Which tissues arise from the endoderm? * What causes the embryonic disc to fold? * What occurs during craniocaudal folding? * What is the shape of the embryo after craniocaudal folding? * What occurs during lateral folding? * What is the shape of the embryo after lateral folding? * Which structures...") Tag: Visual edit
10:04, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Structure of villi.png
10:04, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Structure of villi.png
10:02, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 1,5. The second week of development (Created page with "== Learning objectives == * Describe the differentiation of the trophoblast * What is the amniotic cavity? * What occurs during the lacunar stage of the trophoblast? * What does the primitive yolk sac arise from? * Describe the establishment of the uteroplacental circulation * Where does the chorionic cavity arise? * Which structure will eventually give rise to the umbilical cord? * What occurs during the decidua reaction, and what is its purpose? * Describe the structu...") Tag: Visual edit
10:02, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Second week of embryology.jpg
10:02, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Second week of embryology.jpg
09:59, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 1. From the ovulation until the implantation (Created page with "== Learning objectives == * When does ovulation occur, and what event triggers it? * How does LH cause ovulation? * Where does fertilization most commonly occur? * What must happen to the sperm cell before it can fertilize the egg? * Describe the process of capacitation * Describe the acrosome reaction * Describe the zona reaction * What occurs after the spermatozoon has entered the oocyte? * What is cleavage? * When are the two-cell and four-cell stages reached? * What...") Tag: Visual edit
09:58, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 0. Oogenesis and the menstrual cycle (Created page with "== Learning objectives == * What is the origin of the female gamete? * What is the origin of the primary oocyte, and what is its DNA content? * What is the origin of the secondary oocyte, and what is its DNA content? * What is the origin of the mature ovum, and what is its DNA content? * Describe the primordial follicle * Describe the primary follicle * Describe the antral follicle * Describe the graafian follicle * What is the zona pellucida, and what is its function?...") Tag: Visual edit
09:58, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Menstrual cycle.jpg
09:58, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Menstrual cycle.jpg
09:57, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:DNA amount change after replication.png
09:57, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:DNA amount change after replication.png
09:56, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page Category:Embryology (Created page with "These are the embryology topics belonging to the neuroanatomy course, but they cover most of the embryology for the histology courses as well. Category:2nd year") Tag: Visual edit
09:53, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 38. Senescence (Created page with "The average cell will proliferate and divide happily and without problem, however eventually the telomers on the end of the chromosomes will be so short that the cell cannot divide anymore without damaging the genome. At this point, the cell will enter a ''senescent'' (aged) state where they will no longer divide and eventually die. Not only telomer shortening can cause cells to become senescent. DNA damage, oxidative stress, oncogene activation or some other problem wi...") Tag: Visual edit
09:52, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:P53, p21, and senescence.png
09:52, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:P53, p21, and senescence.png
09:52, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Possible fates of a cell, senescence.png
09:52, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Possible fates of a cell, senescence.png
09:50, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 37. Allergic reaction (Created page with "''Main article: Allergy'' == Mast cells == The main mediators of allergic reactions are the mast cells, but basophils are also involved. They are activated when <abbr>IgE</abbr> bound to their surface FcεRI and this IgE subsequently binds to an antigen. This causes the activation of two protein tyrosine kinases in the cell, Lyn and Syk, which transmit the signal into the cell, causing the mast cell to release the molecules that mediates the allergic reaction. The mole...") Tag: Visual edit
09:49, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 34. Lysosomes, peroxisomes (Created page with "== Lysosomes == The signal sequence of proteins targeted for the lysosomes is a mannose 6-phosphate attached to the protein. The enzyme that attaches mannose 6-phosphate to proteins is called ''N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate transferase'' and is found in Golgi. The deficiency of this enzyme causes I-cell disease. == Peroxisomes == The peroxisomes have many functions. It’s involved in the metabolism of very long chain fatty acids and branched chained fatty acids. It p...") Tag: Visual edit
09:49, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 33. Endoplasmatic reticulum (Created page with "== Functions of ER == ER contains the enzymes of many metabolic processes. ''G6Pase'' is found there, fatty acid elongation and desaturation, triglyceride synthesis, cholesterol and isoprenoid synthesis, <abbr>ACAT</abbr>, lipoprotein synthesis and phospholipid synthesis all take place in the ER. ER is involved in other things as well. The cytochrome P450 system is found in ER and is involved in the phase I. of biotransformation. Glucuronidation also takes place in the...") Tag: Visual edit
09:48, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 32. Cytoskeleton (Created page with "The cytoskeleton is important in determining the cell shape, protect against mechanical stress, move organelles around and many other things. Three types of filaments comprise the cytoskeleton, microtubules, intermediate filaments and microfilaments. A protein called ''plectin'' binds all three types together to form the necessary 3d structure. == Microtubules == Microtubules in the neurons and CNS are stabilized by a protein called ''tau''. Tau can be phosphorylated at...") Tag: Visual edit
09:48, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 31. Biological membranes (Created page with "The cell membrane is comprised of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates. Lipids provide structure, proteins provide function while carbohydrates facilitate cell to cell communication. == Lipids == thumb|The role of PIP2 in the <abbr>PKC</abbr> pathway. The cell membrane is made up of two layers of lipids, each layer being called a leaflet. The layer in contact with the cytosol is the cytosolic leaflet while the layer in contact with the...") Tag: Visual edit
09:48, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Flippase, floppase, and scramblase.png
09:48, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Flippase, floppase, and scramblase.png
09:47, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:PIP2 in the PKC pathway.png
09:47, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:PIP2 in the PKC pathway.png
09:47, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 30. Matrix metalloproteinases (Created page with "Matrix metalloproteinases (<abbr>MMPs</abbr>) are calcium-dependent zinc-containing endopeptidases. They degrade proteins of the extracellular matrix, hence the name. They’re involved in converting structural matrix proteins to signaling molecules, changing the structure of matrix proteins, initiate cell proliferation, induce cell survival, activate signaling molecules and, more importantly, in cancer metastasis, angiogenesis and vasoconstriction. Many subtypes of MMP...") Tag: Visual edit
09:46, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 29. Extracellular matrix (Created page with "I won’t go into details here, I’ll just try to mention what I think is important. You should know that ''adhesion'' means to glue or bind something together, so ''adhesion molecules'' are molecules that bind cells to other cells or to the <abbr>ECM</abbr>. == Binding cells to each other == Cells bind to each other by producing long proteins that attach to the cytoskeleton inside the cell and to similar long protein attached to other cells. This type of protein is ca...") Tag: Visual edit
09:44, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 27-28. Oncogenes and tumor suppressors (Created page with "Cyclin and CDKs are the proteins that control the cell cycle, and they’re highly regulated so that the cell division doesn’t proceed unless everything is cool with the cell. However, when this control fails, the cell can divide uncontrollably, which is what results in cancer. This almost always caused by mutations in multiple genes that is essential for the cell cycle regulation. == Oncogenes == File:Normal and mutated ErbB.png|thumb|332x332px|This figure shows th...") Tag: Visual edit
09:43, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Normal and mutated ErbB.png
09:43, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Normal and mutated ErbB.png
09:42, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 26. Cell cycle (Created page with "thumb|329x329px|The phases of the cell cycle Many different cell types divide constantly. However, it is very important for cells to know when to divide and when not to. If a cell divides while it is in an unhealthy condition, cancer can occur. Proper cell division requires that the cell performs many “checkpoints” during the replication cycle, to make sure everything is working correctly before proceeding. This replication cycle is called th...") Tag: Visual edit
09:41, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Proto-oncogene effect on cell cycle.png
09:41, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Proto-oncogene effect on cell cycle.png
09:40, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Growth factor influence on cell cycle.png
09:40, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Growth factor influence on cell cycle.png
09:39, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Cyclin-CDK levels in cell cycle.png
09:39, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Cyclin-CDK levels in cell cycle.png
09:37, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 25. Mechanism of cell death (Created page with "There are many ways for a cell to die, both programmed (intentionally) and accidental (unintentionally). The body may want to kill off cells in certain processes, for example in T-cell selection in the thymus, affinity maturation of B-cells in the secondary lymphoid organs or in the case of sick or infected cells. The three main ways of programmed cell death are apoptosis, autophagy and more recently discovered, necroptosis (not to be confused with necrosis). Apoptosis i...") Tag: Visual edit
09:37, 31 January 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Autophagy process.png