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09:15, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 50. Prostatitides. Hyperplasia of the prostate, complications (Created page with "== Prostate == thumb|Zones of the prostate The prostate is divided into several biologically distinct regions as seen on the image. Benign prostate hyperplasia (BPH) occurs in the transitional zone (TZ) and periurethral zone, while most cancers occur in the peripheral zone (PZ). The prostate is comprised of glands and stroma. The glands are comprised of two cell layers, a flat basal cell layer and a luminal columnar secretory cell lay...") Tag: Visual edit
09:13, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Zones of the prostate.png
09:13, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Zones of the prostate.png
09:11, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 49. Congenital malformations, inflammations and tumors of the penis (Created page with "== Congenital malformations of the penis == Three congenital malformations of the penis are important, whereas two of them are similar: * Diphallus – the presence of an accessory penis. Extremely rare * Epispadias – distal urethral orifice is present on the dorsal/superior aspect of the penis * Hypospadias – distal urethral orifice is present on the ventral/inferior aspect of the penis Of the latter two, hypospadias is more common. It occurs when the urethral fol...") Tag: Visual edit
09:10, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 48. Tumours of smooth and striated muscle (leiomyoma, leiomyosarcoma, rhabdomyoma and rhabdomyosarcoma, types) (Created page with "== Tumours of smooth muscle == Leiomyoma and leiomyosarcomas are the benign and malignant smooth muscle tumors, respectively. Leiomyomas occur in five different subtypes: * Classic leiomyoma – most common type * Cutaneous leiomyoma – originates from arrector pili * Deep soft tissue leiomyoma – in the retroperitoneum or abdominal cavity * Genital leiomyoma – originates from genital smooth muscle in the nipples or external genital organs * Vascular leiomyoma –...") Tag: Visual edit
09:09, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 47. Tumours of adipose tissue and peripheral nerves, synovial sarcoma (Created page with "''Since writing this topic, "extraskeletal Ewing sarcoma" has been added to the topic.'' == Introduction == Tumors of the adipose tissues are either subtypes of lipoma or subtypes of liposarcoma. Here are some important types: * Lipoma ** Conventional lipoma ** Angiolipoma – comprised of adipocytes and blood vessels ** Angiomyolipoma – comprised of adipocytes, smooth muscle cells and vessels ** Intramuscular lipoma – arises from adipose tissue within muscle ** Hi...") Tag: Visual edit
09:08, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 46. Pathogenesis and frequency of soft tissue tumours. Fibrous tumours and tumourlike lesions. Fibrosarcoma. Fibromatoses. Socalled fibrohistiocytic tumors. (Created page with "== Introduction == “Soft tissue” refers to any nonepithelial tissue other than bone, cartilage, CNS, haematopoietic and lymphoid tissues. In practice it refers to muscle, adipose tissue, fibrous tissue, vessels and the peripheral nervous system. Tumors can arise from any of these tissues. Recall that a sarcoma is a tumor originating from connective tissue cells like fibroblasts and adipocytes. == Soft tissue tumours == Like most tumors, soft tissue tumors can be cl...") Tag: Visual edit
09:06, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 45. Causes and clinical consequences of hyperplasia and atrophy of the suprarenal gland. Cortical tumours of the suprarenal gland (morphology, clinical syndromes) Cortical insufficiency of the suprarenal gland. Tumors of the adrenal medulla. (Created page with "== Introduction == The adrenal glands are paired endocrine glands consisting of a cortex and a medulla. The cortex is comprised of three layers, each of which produce a type of hormone: * Zona glomerulosa – produces mineralocorticoids, especially aldosterone * Zona fasciculata – produces glucocorticoids, especially cortisol * Zona reticularis – produces sex steroids, especially androgens The zona fasciculata accounts for 75% of the cortex, making it much thicker...") Tag: Visual edit
09:05, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 44. Pathology of the parathyroid glands (hyperplasia, adenoma, causes of hypoparathyreoidism). Multiple endocrine neoplasms (Created page with "== Introduction == The parathyroid glands are four oval-shaped glands embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. They’re comprised of ''chief cells'', pale cells that produce PTH, and ''oxyphil cells''. The parathyroid glands produce parathyroid hormone or parathormon (PTH) in response to decreased levels of free (ionised) calcium in the blood. PTH has the following effects: * Increases the renal tubular reabsorption of calcium * Increases the urinary exc...") Tag: Visual edit
09:04, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 43. Inflammatory, tumorous diseases as well as disorders associated with hyperplasia of the thyroid gland (+ hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism) (Created page with "== Introduction == The thyroid gland consists of two lateral lobes connected by a thin isthmus, usually located below and anterior to the larynx. It develops from pharyngeal endoderm that descends from the base of the tongue to its normal position on the anterior neck. It normally weighs less than 30 g. The gland is divided into lobules, each of which is composed by 20 to 40 thyroid ''follicles''. These follicles are lined by cuboidal/low columnar epithelium, and the lu...") Tag: Visual edit
09:01, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 42. Anterior lobe pituitary tumours and their consequences. Posterior lobe syndromes. Disorders associated with hypopituarism (Sheehan syndrome, chromophobic adenoma, empty sella syndrome, suprasellar tumours) (Created page with "== Anterior lobe pituitary tumours == These tumors arise in the anterior lobe of the pituitary. This lobe is normally comprised of many different cell types, each of which produce different hormones. These cells are: * Chromophobe cells * Chromophile cells ** Acidophilic cells *** Somatotrophs – produce growth hormone *** Lactotrophs – produce prolactin ** Basophilic cells *** Corticotrophs – produce ACTH *** Thyrotrophs – produce TSH *** Gonadotrophs – produc...") Tag: Visual edit
09:00, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 41. Nonglial central nervous system tumors (Created page with "== Introduction == The following non-glial CNS tumors were mentioned in the lecture: * Neuronal and mixed neuronal-glial tumors ** Dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumor (DNET) – grade I ** Ganglioglioma/gangliocytoma – grade I ** Central neurocytoma – grade II * Embryonal tumors ** Medulloblastoma – grade IV ** CNS primitive neuroectodermal tumor (PNET) – grade IV ** Atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor (ATRT) – grade IV * Choroid plexus tumors ** Choroid plexu...") Tag: Visual edit
08:58, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 40. Glial central nervous system tumours (Created page with "== Introduction == The majority of CNS tumors are brain metastases; these are three times as common as all primary CNS tumors combined. The most common primary sites of brain metastases are breast and lung tumors, melanoma, renal cell cancer and colorectal cancer. The most common primary CNS tumors in adulthood are glioblastomas, meningiomas and vestibular schwannomas while for childhood pilocytic astrocytomas, meningiomas and medulloblastomas are most frequent. Tumors...") Tag: Visual edit
08:57, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 39. Cerebrovascular diseases, intracranial haemorhages (Created page with "== Introduction == The term ''cerebrovascular disease'' means any pathological disease of the brain that involves blood vessels. Most of them are acute and cause ''stroke.'' Cerebrovascular diseases can be classified as the following: * Cerebrovascular diseases that cause stroke ** Encephalomalacia (= ischaemic stroke) *** Based on morphology: **** Encephalomalacia alba **** Encephalomalacia flava **** Encephalomalacia rubra *** Based on cause: **** Focal ischaemia ***...") Tag: Visual edit
08:56, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 38. Infectious diseases of the CNS (Created page with "== Introduction == The different infections of the brain can be divided into different categories: * Extra-axial inflammation (= meningitis)– inflammation external to the brain parenchyme ** Acute bacterial meningitis ** Acute viral meningitis/aseptic meningitis ** Chronic meningitis * Parenchymal inflammation – inflammation of the parenchyme ** Viral encephalitis/meningoencephalitis ** Parasitic encephalitis/meningoencephalitis ** Fungal encephalitis/meningoencepha...") Tag: Visual edit
08:54, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 37. Demyelinisation disorders (Created page with "== Introduction == Within the CNS and PNS axons are sheathed by myelin, which insulates the axon and allows the nerve signal to propagate much faster. Myelin in the CNS consists of multiple layers of plasma membranes that are assembled by oligodendrocytes. Myelin in the PNS are similar in architecture but they’re produced by Schwann cells and not oligodendrocytes, and the proteins and lipids that the sheath is made of are different. Therefore, most diseases of CNS myel...") Tag: Visual edit
08:53, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 36. Dementias and neurodegenerative disorders (Created page with "== Dementia == Dementia is a clinical condition where there is loss of ''higher cognitive functions'' like thinking, remembering and reasoning, to the extent that it interferes with a person’s daily life. It is most common in elderly and affects 10% of people above 65. It’s important to keep in mind that dementia is ''not'' a part of normal aging. Commonly affected functions include: * Orientation * Problem solving * Concentration * Attention * Personality * Memory...") Tag: Visual edit
08:51, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 35. Cerebral edema, hydrocephalus, malformations of the brain (Created page with "== Cerebral oedema == Cerebral oedema is the accumulation of excess fluid within the brain parenchyme. There are three different types: * Vasogenic oedema * Cytotoxic oedema * Interstitial oedema Vasogenic oedema occurs when the blood-brain barrier is damaged, which allows fluid to shift from the intravascular compartment into the extracellular compartment of the brain. It can be localized or generalized. It occurs due to inflammation, ischaemia or tumors. This oedema...") Tag: Visual edit
08:51, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Cerebral herniation.png
08:51, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Cerebral herniation.png
08:48, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 34. Myeloproliferative neoplasms (Created page with "== Introduction == The myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) are a group of disorders characterized by increased proliferation of neoplastic haematopoietic stem cells of the myeloid cell lineage. The excessive proliferation causes high blood counts of different blood cells. The neoplastic cells tend to seed to secondary haematopoietic organs like the spleen, liver and lymph nodes. The classic MPNs are: * Chronic myeloid leukaemia * Polycythaemia vera * Primary myelofibro...") Tag: Visual edit
08:47, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 33. AML and MDS (Created page with "== Introduction == thumb|Normal haematopoiesis We now enter the world of myeloid neoplasms, which involves the myeloid cell lines on the right of the figure. In some myeloid neoplasms there are “blocks” or “defects” in the maturation of one or more cell lines. In other neoplasms myeloid progenitor cells have increased proliferation. We divide the myeloid neoplasms into three subtypes, based on their inherent “defect”: * Ac...") Tag: Visual edit
08:45, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 32. Nonneoplastic bone marrow disorders (anaemia, leukocytosis and leukopenia, thrombocytopenia) (Created page with "== Anaemia == Anaemia is defined as a reduction in the oxygen-transporting capacity of the blood, usually due to a decrease in the total RBC mass. Here are the approximate normal lab values related to RBCs: {| class="wikitable" |Haemoglobin (Hb) |130 – 170 g/L |- |Haematocrit (Hct) |40 – 50 % |- |RBC count |4.2 – 5.6 x 106/ µL |- |Reticulocyte count |0.5 – 1.5 % |- |Mean corpuscular volume (MCV) |80 – 95 fL |- |Mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH) |25 – 35 pg...") Tag: Visual edit
08:43, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 31. T and NK cell lymphomas (Created page with "== Introduction == T/NK cell lymphomas are a rare type of non-Hodgkin lymphomas, accounting for only 10-20% of cases. They are generally more aggressive than the B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphomas. Most of these lymphomas originate from T-cells, while only a few originate from <abbr>NK-cells</abbr>. Several subtypes exist: * Precursor T-cell lymphomas ** Precursor T-cell lymphoblastic leukaemia/lymphoma * Cutaneous T-cell lymphomas ** Mycosis fungoides ** Sézary syndrome *...") Tag: Visual edit
08:41, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 30. Hodgkin lymphoma (Created page with "== Hodgkin lymphoma == === Introduction === Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) is a distinctive group of B-cell lymphoid neoplasms that are characterized by the presence of a special cell type called ''Reed-Sternberg cell'' (RS cells). It’s also characterised by the fact that the tumour consists of mostly inflammatory, responsive cells, and just a few cancerous cells. Actually, for this reason, HL has sometimes been called Hodgkin ''disease'' rather than ''lymphoma.'' The RS cells...") Tag: Visual edit
08:39, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 29. High grade B cell lymphomas (BL, DLBCL). Plasma cell neoplasms (Created page with "== Burkitt lymphoma == Burkitt lymphoma (BL) is an aggressive, mature non-Hodgkin B cell lymphoma. A lymphoma is always present; leukaemia is uncommon but may occur. Three subtypes exist, each of which have different etiology and clinical manifestations. Endemic Burkitt lymphoma is associated with <abbr>EBV</abbr> infection and is most commonly seen in children and young adults in equatorial Africa and South America. The lymphoma is typically located in the head and nec...") Tag: Visual edit
08:37, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Mononucleosis lymphocyte.png
08:37, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Mononucleosis lymphocyte.png
08:37, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 28. Indolent B cell lymphomas (FL, CLL, MCL, MZL) (+ introduction to haematological malignancies) (Created page with "== Introduction == thumb|Normal haematopoiesis We’re entering the topics about haematological malignancies. Before we start, we need to make a few concepts clear first. The figure shows the normal haematopoiesis. Based on this figure can we divide the white blood cells into two categories: The myeloid cells, which includes the cell lines on the right, and the lymphoid cells, which includes the cell lines on the left. There are three...") Tag: Visual edit
08:36, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Classification of lymphoid neoplasms.png
08:36, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Classification of lymphoid neoplasms.png
08:35, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Normal haematopoiesis.jpg
08:35, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Normal haematopoiesis.jpg
08:34, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 27. Reactive lymph node changes (Created page with "== Introduction == This chapter involves mostly disorders of white blood cells. Their number can either be elevated (leukocytosis) or decreased (leukopenia). Leukocytosis itself is nonspecific as it can be a reactive reaction to a primary, often microbial disease, or it can be due to a neoplasm of white blood cells. Reactive leukocytosis is the increase in white blood cells which is seen in a variety of disorders caused by microbial and nonmicrobial causes. Which specif...") Tag: Visual edit
08:33, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 26. Cystitides, tumours of the bladder and ureter (Created page with "= Congenital anomalies of ureters = Duplicated ureter is a condition in which there are two ureters that drain the same kidney. It occurs when the ureteric bud, which the ureter develops from, splits into two ureters. If this splitting is incomplete can we be left with a bifid ureter, where two ureters drain the same kidney, but the two ureters unite before draining into the bladder at a single ureteric orifice. These conditions have no clinical significance. Ureteropel...") Tag: Visual edit
08:31, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 25. Renal tumours (oncocytoma, renocellular cancer, Wilms tumor, urothelial carcinoma of the renal pelvis) (Created page with "== Introduction == Many types of benign and malignant tumors occur in the urinary tract, however in the daily routine the most common ones are oncocytoma and renal cell carcinoma. == Benign renal tumours == Oncocytoma is the most important benign renal tumor. It originates from intercalated cells of the tubules. The name comes from the tumor cells are ''oncocytes'', cells with large eosinophilic cytoplasm due to high content of mitochondria. The tumor is brownish on mac...") Tag: Visual edit
08:30, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 24. Benign and malignant nephrosclerosis and diffuse cortical necrosis. Urolithiasis and obstructive uropathy. (Created page with "== Nephrosclerosis == Nephrosclerosis, or more precisely ''arterionephrosclerosis'' refers to thickening and sclerosis of the walls of arteries and arterioles in the kidney. It’s a condition that is related to hypertension. Nephrosclerosis can lead to chronic renal failure. We distinguish two types of nephrosclerosis: the benign type and the malignant type. Benign nephrosclerosis occurs when there is chronic hypertension. There is a hyaline thickening of the walls of...") Tag: Visual edit
08:29, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 23. Acute tubular necrosis (ischaemic and toxic). Drug-induced (hypersensitive) interstitial nephritis, analgetic nephropathy, urate nephropathy. Acute and chronic pyelonephritis (pathogenesis, morphology, consequences and clinical course) (Created page with "''Written by ms. Worldwide, edited by Nikolas.'' == Tubulointerstitial diseases == Many diseases don’t primarily affect the glomeruli but rather the tubules and interstitium. These diseases are called tubulointerstitial diseases. They can be caused by infections, obstruction, drug-related side effects and ischaemic effects. Tubulointerstitial nephritis is commonly caused by bacterial infection, and in these cases the renal pelvis is usually prominently involved, ther...") Tag: Visual edit
08:27, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 22. IgA nephropathy, chronic glomerulonephritis. Glomerular lesions associated with systemic disorders (SLE, Henoch-Schönlein purpura, Wegener’s granulomatosis, amyloidosis) (Created page with "== <abbr>IgA nephropathy</abbr> == IgA nephropathy, also known as Berger disease is the most common cause of glomerulonephritis worldwide. As the name suggests it’s caused by immune complexes of IgA. It usually occurs after or during an upper respiratory tract or gastrointestinal infection. Children and young adults are most commonly affected. IgA nephropathy usually causes nephritic syndrome, but it can occasionally cause nephrotic syndrome as well. It may cause rapid...") Tag: Visual edit
08:25, 5 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 21. Nephritic syndrome (acute poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis). Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis. Diabetic nephropathy. (Created page with "''I know this is actually topic 22 but I thought it made more sense for this topic to be before topic 21, so I switched them.'' == Nephritic syndrome == Glomerulonephritis causes acute glomerulonephritis syndrome, sometimes called just ''nephritic syndrome.'' According to the definition of glomerulonephritis syndrome, the following clinical features are present: * Glomerular haematuria * Proteinuria (usually mild) * Decreased kidney function (<abbr>GFR</abbr>) * Increa...") Tag: Visual edit
14:45, 4 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page MediaWiki:Sidebar (Created page with " * navigation ** mainpage|mainpage-description ** Category:Pages_by_subject|Browse pages by subject ** Category:Pages_by_discipline|Browse pages by discipline ** recentchanges-url|recentchanges ** randompage-url|randompage ** helppage|help-mediawiki * SEARCH * TOOLBOX * LANGUAGES")
14:40, 4 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 20. Nephrosis syndrome: minimal change, membranous glomerulonephritis, focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis. (Created page with "== Nephrotic syndrome == === Introduction === Nephrotic syndrome is a renal syndrome which includes the following clinical features: * Features which are always present: ** Nephrotic-range proteinuria (> 3,5 g/day) ** Hypoproteinaemia, hypoalbuminaemia ** Oedema (periorbital/leg oedema, anasarca, ascites, hydrothorax) * Features which are often present: ** Dyslipidaemia ** Hypercoagulability (loss of anticoagulant proteins) ** Increased risk of infections ** Shrinkage...") Tag: Visual edit
14:39, 4 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 19. Glomerulonephritis. Classification according to clinical symptoms. Histologic alterations in glomerulonephritides. (Created page with "=== Introduction === ''Glomerulonephritis'' (<abbr>GN</abbr>) or ''glomerular disease'' is a group of diseases where the glomeruli are damaged, although inflammation itself (-itis) is not necessarily present. Glomerular damage is commonly caused by immune-mediated processes but can be caused by other processes as well, as we’ll see. All glomerular diseases can progress to acute or chronic renal failure, so quick diagnosis and immediate initiation of therapy is importa...") Tag: Visual edit
14:37, 4 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 18. Renal failure, uraemia. Congenital malformations and cystic diseases of the kidney (Created page with "== Congenital malformations of the kidneys == Most of these malformations are asympomatic. In some cases they may cause early renal failure in infants. === Agenesis – lack of one or both kidneys === Foetuses can have bilateral kidney agenesis, but most of these cases are terminated or stillborn. Foetuses with bilateral kidney agenesis tend to have lung hypoplasia as well. === Hypoplasia === Hypoplasia of the kidney. === Ectopic kidney === An ectopic kidney is a kidn...") Tag: Visual edit
14:25, 4 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 17. Acute and chronic pancreatitis. Tumours of the pancreas (Created page with "== Introduction == The exocrine part of the pancreas accounts for 99% of the organ. The exocrine pancreas is composed of ductules, ducts and acinar cells that produce digestive enzymes. These enzymes are secreted in pro-enzyme form inside ''zymogen'' granules, so that they aren’t activated before they reach the lumen of the duodenum. The enzymes include ''trypsin'', ''phospholipase, elastase'' and ''lipase''. The pancreas has multiple mechanisms to prevent premature a...") Tag: Visual edit
14:23, 4 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 16. Cholelithiasis (aetiology and complications) and pathology of the extrahepatic biliary tract (Created page with "== Gallstone disease == === Introduction and epidemiology === Cholelithiasis refers to the presence of gallstones in the gallbladder, while choledocholithiasis refers to gallstones in the common bile duct. Gallstone disease refers to various clinical manifestations involving gallstones, including: * Asymptomatic gallstones * Uncomplicated gallstone disease ** Biliary colic * Complicated gallstone disease ** Acute calculous cholecystitis ** Cholangitis ** Gallstone panc...") Tag: Visual edit
14:22, 4 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page 15. Tumours and tumourlike conditions of the liver (Created page with "== Introduction == The liver and lungs share the unfortunate throne of being those organs that are most frequently metastasized into. The most common hepatic neoplasms are neoplastic carcinomas from the colon, lung or breast. The liver obviously also has primary tumors. == Tumor-like lesions of the liver == === Liver cyst === Simple liver cysts may be single or multiple. Patients are almost always asymptomatic, and no specific management is required unless they cause...") Tag: Visual edit
14:20, 4 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Liver abscess.jpg
14:20, 4 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Liver abscess.jpg
14:19, 4 May 2022 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Echinococcus cyst.png