Acute kidney injury: Difference between revisions
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'''Acute kidney injury''' (AKI) is a clinical syndrome which is characterised by an acute decrease kidney function (<abbr>[[Glomerular filtration rate|GFR]])</abbr> (over hours or days), as evidenced by elevated creatinine. There may also be accumulation of urinary waste products and [[Oliguria and anuria|oliguria/anuria]], but not always. The cause may be prerenal, renal, or postrenal, but the most common causes are prerenal and [[acute tubular necrosis]]. | <section begin="radiology" />'''Acute kidney injury''' (AKI) is a clinical syndrome which is characterised by an acute decrease kidney function (<abbr>[[Glomerular filtration rate|GFR]])</abbr> (over hours or days), as evidenced by elevated creatinine. There may also be accumulation of urinary waste products and [[Oliguria and anuria|oliguria/anuria]], but not always. The cause may be prerenal, renal, or postrenal, but the most common causes are prerenal and [[acute tubular necrosis]]. | ||
During the evaluation it’s important to determine whether it’s really acute or chronic, and to determine the underlying cause. Management includes treating the cause and correcting severe electrolyte disturbances. In some cases, [[renal replacement therapy]] may be required. | During the evaluation it’s important to determine whether it’s really acute or chronic, and to determine the underlying cause. Management includes treating the cause and correcting severe electrolyte disturbances. In some cases, [[renal replacement therapy]] may be required. | ||
The condition is nowadays called acute kidney injury rather than '''acute renal failure'''. | The condition is nowadays called acute kidney injury rather than '''acute renal failure'''.<section end="radiology" /> | ||
== Etiology == | == Etiology == | ||
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== Clinical features == | == Clinical features == | ||
[[Oliguria and anuria|Oliguria]] is the most common symptom, but in many cases it’s asymptomatic. There may be symptoms of the underlying cause, or symptoms of [[uraemia]]. | [[Oliguria and anuria|Oliguria]] is the most common symptom, but in many cases it’s asymptomatic. There may be symptoms of the underlying cause, or symptoms of [[uraemia]]. | ||
<section begin="radiology" /> | |||
== Diagnosis and evaluation == | == Diagnosis and evaluation == | ||
<section end="radiology" />In the evaluation of AKI, the estimated [[Glomerular filtration rate|GFR]] (eGFR) can ''not'' be used to evaluate the kidney function, as it's estimated according to formulas which are made for chronic kidney disease. The serum [[creatinine]] must be used instead (''normal range 60 – 100 µmol/L)''. AKI is the only condition in which we use serum creatinine to monitor kidney function rather than eGFR. | |||
In the evaluation of AKI, the estimated [[Glomerular filtration rate|GFR]] (eGFR) can ''not'' be used to evaluate the kidney function, as it's estimated according to formulas which are made for chronic kidney disease. The serum [[creatinine]] must be used instead. AKI is the only condition in which we use serum creatinine to monitor kidney function rather than eGFR. | |||
During the evaluation of a person with acute kidney injury, it’s important to answer these 5 questions: | During the evaluation of a person with acute kidney injury, it’s important to answer these 5 questions: | ||
* Is it really AKI, or is it CKD or acute-on-chronic? | * Is it really AKI, or is it CKD or acute-on-chronic? | ||
** Is this really an acute loss of kidney function or is this a | ** Is this really an acute loss of kidney function or is this a newly discovered CKD? | ||
** Did the patient already have decreased GFR and this is just a worsening? | ** Did the patient already have decreased GFR and this is just a worsening? | ||
* Is there a prerenal cause? | * Is there a prerenal cause? | ||
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Patient history, physical examination, previous [[kidney function tests]], and [[ultrasound]] can help answer these questions. An AKI kidney has normal morphology, as opposed to a CKD kidney. A renal cause usually has abnormal [[urine analysis]]. A postrenal cause can have a palpable bladder, or obstruction or pyelectasis can be visible on US. Allergic symptoms can suggest nephritis. Low BP can suggest hypovolaemia. | Patient history, physical examination, previous [[kidney function tests]], and [[ultrasound]] can help answer these questions. An AKI kidney has normal morphology, as opposed to a CKD kidney. A renal cause usually has abnormal [[urine analysis]]. A postrenal cause can have a palpable bladder, or obstruction or pyelectasis can be visible on US. Allergic symptoms can suggest nephritis. Low BP can suggest hypovolaemia. | ||
<section begin="radiology" /> | |||
In case of AKI, the kidney is usually enlarged, which can be visualised on ultrasonography. Ultrasound may also reveal an underlying cause and is therefore usually the first choice imaging modality for AKI. | |||
<section end="radiology" /> | |||
The urea:creatinine ratio may be useful in finding the cause. A high ratio (> 20:1) suggests a prerenal cause, while a lower ratio (< 20:1) suggests a renal cause. | The urea:creatinine ratio may be useful in finding the cause. A high ratio (> 20:1) suggests a prerenal cause, while a lower ratio (< 20:1) suggests a renal cause. | ||
Revision as of 11:21, 21 December 2023
Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a clinical syndrome which is characterised by an acute decrease kidney function (GFR) (over hours or days), as evidenced by elevated creatinine. There may also be accumulation of urinary waste products and oliguria/anuria, but not always. The cause may be prerenal, renal, or postrenal, but the most common causes are prerenal and acute tubular necrosis.
During the evaluation it’s important to determine whether it’s really acute or chronic, and to determine the underlying cause. Management includes treating the cause and correcting severe electrolyte disturbances. In some cases, renal replacement therapy may be required.
The condition is nowadays called acute kidney injury rather than acute renal failure.
Etiology
AKI is classified according to the underlying cause, whether it’s a prerenal cause, a renal cause, or a postrenal cause. However, there are usually multiple factors involved.
- Prerenal AKI
- Hypovolaemia/hypotension
- Decreased RBF (heart failure, renal artery stenosis)
- Abnormal kidney haemodynamics (sepsis, hepatorenal syndrome)
- Renal AKI
- Tubulointerstitial disorders
- Glomerulonephritis
- Thrombotic microangiopathies (TTP/HUS)
- Obstruction of tubules
- Myeloma proteins
- Crystals
- Postrenal AKI
Of these, the prerenal causes are the most common, followed by acute tubular necrosis.
Drugs which can cause AKI (by various mechanisms) are most commonly NSAIDs and RAAS inhibitors.
Chronic kidney disease is the strongest risk factor for AKI. If a person with CKD develops AKI, the condition is called acute-on-chronic AKI.
Clinical features
Oliguria is the most common symptom, but in many cases it’s asymptomatic. There may be symptoms of the underlying cause, or symptoms of uraemia.
Diagnosis and evaluation
In the evaluation of AKI, the estimated GFR (eGFR) can not be used to evaluate the kidney function, as it's estimated according to formulas which are made for chronic kidney disease. The serum creatinine must be used instead (normal range 60 – 100 µmol/L). AKI is the only condition in which we use serum creatinine to monitor kidney function rather than eGFR.
During the evaluation of a person with acute kidney injury, it’s important to answer these 5 questions:
- Is it really AKI, or is it CKD or acute-on-chronic?
- Is this really an acute loss of kidney function or is this a newly discovered CKD?
- Did the patient already have decreased GFR and this is just a worsening?
- Is there a prerenal cause?
- Is there a postrenal cause?
- Is there a renal artery occlusion?
- Is there a renoparenchymal disease?
Patient history, physical examination, previous kidney function tests, and ultrasound can help answer these questions. An AKI kidney has normal morphology, as opposed to a CKD kidney. A renal cause usually has abnormal urine analysis. A postrenal cause can have a palpable bladder, or obstruction or pyelectasis can be visible on US. Allergic symptoms can suggest nephritis. Low BP can suggest hypovolaemia.
In case of AKI, the kidney is usually enlarged, which can be visualised on ultrasonography. Ultrasound may also reveal an underlying cause and is therefore usually the first choice imaging modality for AKI.
The urea:creatinine ratio may be useful in finding the cause. A high ratio (> 20:1) suggests a prerenal cause, while a lower ratio (< 20:1) suggests a renal cause.
If the cause remains unclear despite these investigations, a renal biopsy may be required.
Treatment
Treating the underlying cause is essential, as well as correcting any severe electrolyte disorders.
If there is hypervolaemia, a loop diuretic may be used.
If there are indications for it, renal replacement therapy may be used.
Prognosis
In many cases patients make a full recovery, but AKI can progress to chronic kidney disease as well. It might take months for kidney functions to recover completely, during which the patient may experience polyuria because the tubules need a long time to recover.