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- 18:17, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 56. Haemolytic anaemias (Created page with "Conditions that cause destruction of RBCs (and therefore decrease their lifespan) are called haemolytic anaemias. Two types exist: Corpuscular haemolytic anaemias have some problems with the RBCs themselves that causes them to have decreased lifetime. Common problems include problems with the membrane, enzymes or haemoglobin. Extracorpuscular haemolytic anaemias include healthy RBCs, however external factors cause them to be destroyed, like mechanical trauma, toxins or...") Tag: Visual edit
- 18:16, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 55. Deficiency anaemias (Created page with "Deficiency anaemias are anaemias characterised by deficiencies of one of the essential components of RBC production. They all lead to reduced RBC production. == Iron deficiency anaemia == Iron deficiency is the most frequent deficiency state in developed countries. It can occur due to: * Deficiency iron intake ** Bad diet ** Protein-calorie malnutrition (PCM) ** Strict vegans ** Anorexia * Malabsorption ** Low stomach acid (hypochlorhydria) ** Vitamin C deficiency ** C...") Tag: Visual edit
- 18:14, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 54. Aplastic anemia and anemias of complex etiology in disease states (Created page with "== Aplastic anaemia == Aplastic anaemia is any anaemia associated with severe decrease or death of haematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. It results in fewer RBCs being produced. It can be caused by: * Drugs ** Drugs against hyperthyroidism ** Antihypertensive drugs ** Antipsychotics * Irradiation ** Cancer treatment * Chemicals ** Benzene ** Organic solvents ** Insecticides * Viruses ** Hepatitis ** HIV ** Epstein-Barr virus * Hereditary ** Fanconi anaemia ** Di...") Tag: Visual edit
- 18:13, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 53. Forms, general pathophysiology and consequences of anaemia (Created page with "== Refresher on the blood == The most important components of the blood are: {| class="wikitable" !Component !Concentration |- |Na+ |135 – 145 mmol/L |- |K+ |3.5 – 5.0 mmol/L |- |Ca2+ |2.3 – 2.7 mmol/L |- |Cl– |100 – 106 mmol/L |- |Protein |60-84 g/L |- |Albumin |35-50 g/L |- |Haemoglobin |140 – 160 g/L |- |RBCs |4 – 5 million/μL or 4 – 5 trillion (T) /L |} Cells in the body communicate with the outside world via the extracellular spaces. The most import...") Tag: Visual edit
- 18:07, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 52. Dyspnoea (Created page with "Dyspnoea is defined as the subjective feeling of difficulty to breathe. Patients usually complain about an unpleasant feeling of awareness of respiratory efforts, shortness of breath and angina-like thoracic pressure. Dyspnoea isn’t ''always'' accompanied by respiratory failure, however they often occur together. It always involves an increased work of breathing. It can be caused by: * Exercise (not pathological) * Increased respiratory drive ** Hypoxaemia ** Metabo...") Tag: Visual edit
- 18:06, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 51. Partial or complete respiratory failure (Created page with "Respiration is sufficient when it is able to provide enough oxygen to and remove enough carbon dioxide from the tissues. If this is not the case, we have ''respiratory failure''. We have two types of respiratory failure, partial and global. == Partial respiratory failure == Partial respiratory failure is also called hypoxaemic normocapnic or type I respiratory failure. In partial respiratory failure is the pO2 in the arteries lower than 60 mmHg, meaning there is hypoxae...") Tag: Visual edit
- 18:00, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 50. Causes and consequences of increased airway resistance – causes and consequences of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) – emphysema (Created page with "== Obstructive pulmonary disorders == In obstructive lung diseases is the non-elastic airway resistance increased, mostly during expiration. It can be due to extrathoracic or intrathoracic obstructions. When extrathoracic obstructions are present is inspiration hampered while expiration is mostly normal. Examples of extrathoracic obstructions include: * Post-intubation hardening of the trachea * Compression of trachea ** Goitre ** Tumour ** Laryngeal spasm Extrathorac...") Tag: Visual edit
- 17:56, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 49. Forms and mechanisms of hypoxia. Ways of compensation – cyanosis (Created page with "Hypoxia refers to a decreased supply or utilization of oxygen in tissues. There are four ways tissues can get too little oxygen, so we have four types of hypoxia. == Cyanosis == Cyanosis is the bluish discoloration of skin and mucosa that occurs in some types of hypoxia. Haemoglobin exists in two main forms, the form that has bound oxygen and the form that hasn’t, called reduced haemoglobin or ''deoxyhaemoglobin''. Because the oxygen content of venous blood is lower t...") Tag: Visual edit
- 17:53, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 48. Disorders of oxygen transport (abnormal hemoglobin, CO-poisoning, methemoglobinemia) (Created page with "We’ve discussed ventilation and diffusion. Now we’re going to talk about oxygen transport. == Oxygen transport in blood == Only 1.5% of the oxygen in the blood is dissolved in the blood fluid itself. The other 98.5% is bound to haemoglobin. The partial pressure of oxygen in a vessel measures the total “amount” of oxygen inside the vessel, both dissolved and bound to haemoglobin. File:Haemoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve 2.png|thumb|319x319px|Haemoglobin-oxyge...") Tag: Visual edit
- 17:52, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Haemoglobin oxygen dissociation curve 3.png
- 17:52, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Haemoglobin oxygen dissociation curve 3.png
- 17:49, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Haemoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve 2.png
- 17:49, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Haemoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve 2.png
- 17:47, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 47. Disorders of alveolo-capillary diffusion. Hepatopulmonary syndrome (Created page with "Up until now have we talked about ventilation. Now let’s talk about diffusion. == Alveolo-capillary diffusion == Oxygen gets to the perialveolar capillaries by diffusion from the alveolar space, and carbon dioxide diffuses the opposite direction. Diffusion happens across the alveolo-capillary or diffusion membrane, which has the following layers: * Alveolar epithelial cell (type 1 pneumocyte) * Alveolar basement membrane * Interstitium * Capillary basement membrane *...") Tag: Visual edit
- 17:44, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 46. Ventilation-perfusion mismatch (VQ). Causes and consequences (Created page with "== The V/Q ratio == Respiration is the most effective when gas exchange takes place in a well-ventilated alveolus while the capillary blood supply of the alveolus is good. We need a method to evaluate this, so we introduce two new symbols. V is the ''alveolar ventilation'', while Q is the ''perialveolar capillary blood perfusion''. They’re both measured in litres per minute. We often talk about the ratio between the two, the ventilation/perfusion ratio, or V/Q ratio....") Tag: Visual edit
- 17:42, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Ventilation and perfusion in the different areas of the lung.png
- 17:42, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Ventilation and perfusion in the different areas of the lung.png
- 17:41, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 45. Acute and chronic alveolar hyperventilation (Created page with "There are some reasons someone might hyperventilate to cover physiological needs, like during exercise. This hyperventilation is compensatory due to increased CO2 production, and is necessary to keep the pCO2 levels normal. However, these cases are not ''alveolar'' hyperventilation. By definition, alveolar hyperventilation is when alveolar ventilation ''exceeds'' the need, being out of proportion to the pCO2 production. Clinically, we see this as arterial pCO2 below 36...") Tag: Visual edit
- 17:40, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 44. Alveolar hypoventilation. Causes and consequences. (Created page with "Alveolar ventilation is the gas exchange within the alveoli within a certain time, often 1 minute. The normal value of tidal volume is 500 mL. Of these 500 mL approx. 350 mL reach the alveoli while 150 mL fill the dead space. When we take deep breaths the ratio between alveoli ventilation and dead space ventilation increases. When we take shallow breaths the ratio decreases. Alveolar hypoventilation is when the alveolar ventilation is insufficient compared to the requir...") Tag: Visual edit
- 17:38, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 43. The work of breathing. Abnormalities of elastic resistance, restrictive disorders (Created page with "== Mechanics of breathing == The pressure in the pleural space, the space between the visceral and parietal layers of the pleura is -4 cmH2O in rest. The intrapleural pressure is -10 cmH2O in the apex of the lung and -2.5 cmH2O in the base of the lung. In other words, the intrapleural pressure is higher at the level of the base than at the level of the apex. This is due to gravity pulling the air down to the base from the apex. To breathe in the thoracic cavity must exp...") Tag: Visual edit
- 17:38, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Work of breathing related to breathing frequency and volume.png
- 17:38, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Work of breathing related to breathing frequency and volume.png
- 17:36, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Laminar and turbulent flow.png
- 17:36, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Laminar and turbulent flow.png
- 17:36, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Elastic resistance in alveoli.png
- 17:36, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Elastic resistance in alveoli.png
- 17:34, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 42. Disorders of the control of breathing. Age-dependent changes. Sleep-apnea syndrome (Created page with "For respiration to be efficient must all these processes work correctly: * Ventilation * Diffusion of gases across the alveolo-capillary membrane * Transport of gases in the blood * Oxygen uptake of cells We’ll start by examining the regulation of these processes. == Regulation of respiration == Neurons that control the breathing muscles sit in the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata and pons. The respiratory centre receives inputs from chemoreceptors, mecha...") Tag: Visual edit
- 17:33, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Abnormal breathing patterns.png
- 17:33, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Abnormal breathing patterns.png
- 17:33, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Cheyne-Stokes respiration.png
- 17:33, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Cheyne-Stokes respiration.png
- 16:31, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 41. Principles and evaluation of respiratory function tests. Characteristics and parameters of abnormal breathing mechanics (Created page with "Respiratory function tests like the full-body plethysmography can be used to measure dynamic and static lung volumes and airflow rates. These tests can be used to diagnose pulmonary disorders and differentiate between obstructive and restrictive lung diseases. In obstructive disorders the dynamic parameters are often abnormal. Decreased Tiffeneau index and problems exhaling are characteristic. In restrictive disorders the static parameters are often abnormal. Normal Ti...") Tag: Visual edit
- 16:30, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Flow-volume curve in intrathoracic airway obstruction.png
- 16:30, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Flow-volume curve in intrathoracic airway obstruction.png
- 16:29, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Flow-volume curve in extrathoracic airway obstruction.png
- 16:29, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Flow-volume curve in extrathoracic airway obstruction.png
- 16:29, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Flow-volume curve in obstructive disorders.png
- 16:29, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Flow-volume curve in obstructive disorders.png
- 16:27, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Flow-volume curve in restrictive disorder.png
- 16:27, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Flow-volume curve in restrictive disorder.png
- 16:26, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Flow-volume curve.png
- 16:26, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Flow-volume curve.png
- 16:26, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:FEV1 graph.jpg
- 16:26, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:FEV1 graph.jpg
- 16:25, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Static lung volumes.png
- 16:25, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs uploaded File:Static lung volumes.png
- 16:17, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 40. Atrial or ventricular flutter, atrial or ventricular fibrillation (Created page with "== Atrial fibrillation == Atrial fibrillation (AF, Afib) is the most common supraventricular tachyarrhythmia. It always occurs in both atria at the same time. In Afib the atria contract rapidly but ineffectively and uncoordinatedly. There is no haemodynamically effective contraction and there is turbulence, which predisposes to thrombus formation. === Etiology === * Pressure or volume load of the atria ** Hypertension ** Left-sided heart failure ** Pulmonary embolism *...") Tag: Visual edit
- 16:07, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 39. ECG in acute myocardial infarction (Created page with "Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is characterised by ischaemia and infarction of the myocardium. These pathological processes cause characteristic signs of the ECG that we can use to diagnose it (in addition to cardiac enzymes and symptoms). Most of these signs appear only in the leads that correspond to the where the myocardial infarction occurs. According to the location of the infarct, the following leads often show signs: {| class="wikitable" !Localization of infar...") Tag: Visual edit
- 15:58, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page 38. Primary and secondary repolarization abnormalities in the ECG (Created page with "On the ECG repolarization is characterised by the ST segment and T-wave. Any abnormality of cardiac repolarization will be seen on the ECG as abnormal ST segments or T-waves. Repolarization abnormalities can be primary or secondary in etiology. A repolarization abnormality is primary if the preceding depolarization (QRS complex) is normal and secondary if the QRS complex is abnormal. == Primary ST segment abnormalities == The J point is the point where the QRS complex...") Tag: Visual edit
- 15:43, 17 February 2023 Nikolas talk contribs created page File:Types of ST depression.png